牛顿是啥东西？

Posted 2023-04-15

　　在牛顿的全部科学贡献中，数学成就占有突出的地位。他数学生涯中的第一项创造性成果就是发现了二项式定理。据牛顿本人回忆，他是在1664年和1665年间的冬天，在研读沃利斯博士的《无穷算术》时，试图修改他的求圆面积的级数时发现这一定理的。
　　笛卡尔的解析几何把描述运动的函数关系和几何曲线相对应。牛顿在老师巴罗的指导下，在钻研笛卡尔的解析几何的基础上，找到了新的出路。可以把任意时刻的速度看是在微小的时间范围里的速度的平均值，这就是一个微小的路程和时间间隔的比值，当这个微小的时间间隔缩小到无穷小的时候，就是这一点的准确值。这就是微分的概念。
　　求微分相当于求时间和路程关系得在某点的切线斜率。一个变速的运动物体在一定时间范围里走过的路程，可以看作是在微小时间间隔里所走路程的和，这就是积分的概念。求积分相当于求时间和速度关系的曲线下面的面积。牛顿从这些基本概念出发，建立了微积分。
　　微积分的创立是牛顿最卓越的数学成就。牛顿为解决运动问题，才创立这种和物理概念直接联系的数学理论的，牛顿称之为"流数术"。它所处理的一些具体问题，如切线问题、求积问题、瞬时速度问题以及函数的极大和极小值问题等，在牛顿前已经得到人们的研究了。但牛顿超越了前人，他站在了更高的角度，对以往分散的结论加以综合，将自古希腊以来求解无限小问题的各种技巧统一为两类普通的算法——微分和积分，并确立了这两类运算的互逆关系，从而完成了微积分发明中最关键的一步，为近代科学发展提供了最有效的工具，开辟了数学上的一个新纪元。
　　牛顿没有及时发表微积分的研究成果，他研究微积分可能比莱布尼茨早一些，但是莱布尼茨所采取的表达形式更加合理，而且关于微积分的著作出版时间也比牛顿早。
　　在牛顿和莱布尼茨之间，为争论谁是这门学科的创立者的时候，竟然引起了一场悍然大波，这种争吵在各自的学生、支持者和数学家中持续了相当长的一段时间，造成了欧洲大陆的数学家和英国数学家的长期对立。英国数学在一个时期里闭关锁国，囿于民族偏见，过于拘泥在牛顿的“流数术”中停步不前，因而数学发展整整落后了一百年。
　　应该说，一门科学的创立决不是某一个人的业绩，它必定是经过多少人的努力后，在积累了大量成果的基础上，最后由某个人或几个人总结完成的。微积分也是这样，是牛顿和莱布尼茨在前人的基础上各自独立的建立起来的。
　　1707年，牛顿的代数讲义经整理后出版，定名为《普遍算术》。他主要讨论了代数基础及其(通过解方程)在解决各类问题中的应用。书中陈述了代数基本概念与基本运算，用大量实例说明了如何将各类问题化为代数方程，同时对方程的根及其性质进行了深入探讨，引出了方程论方面的丰硕成果，如:他得出了方程的根与其判别式之间的关系，指出可以利用方程系数确定方程根之幂的和数，即“牛顿幂和公式”。
　　牛顿对解析几何与综合几何都有贡献。他在1736年出版的《解析几何》中引入了曲率中心，给出密切线圆(或称曲线圆)概念，提出曲率公式及计算曲线的曲率方法。并将自己的许多研究成果总结成专论《三次曲线枚举》，于1704年发表。此外，他的数学工作还涉及数值分析、概率论和初等数论等众多领域。
　　在一六六五年，刚好二十二岁的牛顿发现了二项式定理，这对于微积分的充分发展是必不可少的一步。二项式定理把能为直接计算所发现的
　　等简单结果推广如下的形式
　　推广形式
　　二项式级数展开式是研究级数论、函数论、数学分析、方程理论的有力工具。在今天我们会发觉这个方法只适用于n是正整数，当n是正整数1，2，3，....... ，级数终止在正好是n＋1项。如果n不是正整数，级数就不会终止，这个方法就不适用了。但是我们要知道那时，莱布尼茨在一六九四年才引进函数这个词，在微积分早期阶段，研究超越函数时用它们的级来处理是所用方法中最有成效的。

　　创建微积分
　　牛顿在数学上最卓越的成就是创建微积分。他超越前人的功绩在于，他将古希腊以来求解无限小问题的各种特殊技巧统一为两类普遍的算法－－微分和积分，并确立了这两类运算的互逆关系，如：面积计算可以看作求切线的逆过程。
　　那时莱布尼兹刚好亦提出微积分研究报告，更因此引发了一场微积分发明专利权的争论，直到莱氏去世才停息。而后世己认定微积是他们同时发明的。
　　微积分方法上，牛顿所作出的极端重要的贡献是，他不但清楚地看到，而且大胆地运用了代数所提供的大大优越于几何的方法论。他以代数方法取代了卡瓦列里、格雷哥里、惠更斯和巴罗的几何方法，完成了积分的代数化。从此，数学逐渐从感觉的学科转向思维的学科。
　　微积分产生的初期，由于还没有建立起巩固的理论基础，被有些喜爱思考的人研究。更因此而引发了著名的第二次数学危机。这个问题直到十九世纪极限理论建立，才得到解决。

　　方程论与变分法
　　牛顿在代数方面也作出了经典的贡献，他的《广义算术》大大推动了方程论。他发现实多项式的虚根必定成双出现，求多项式根的上界的规则，他以多项式的系数表示多项式的根n次幂之和公式，给出实多项式虚根个数的限制的笛卡儿符号规则的一个推广。
　　牛顿在还设计了求数值方程的实根近似值的对数和超越方程都适用的一种方法，该方法的修正，现称为牛顿方法。
　　牛顿在力学领域也有伟大的发现，这是说明物体运动的科学。第—运动定律是伽利略发现的。这个定律阐明，如果物体处于静止或作恒速直线运动，那么只要没有外力作用，它就仍将保持静止或继续作匀速直线运动。这个定律也称惯性定律，它描述了力的一种性质：力可以使物体由静止到运动和由运动到静止，也可以使物体由一种运动形式变化为另一种形式。此被称为牛顿第一定律。力学中最重要的问题是物体在类似情况下如何运动。牛顿第二定律解决了这个问题；该定律被看作是古典物理学中最重要的基本定律。牛顿第二定律定量地描述了力能使物体的运动产生变化。它说明速度的时间变化率（即加速度a与力F成正比，而与物体的质量里成反比，即a=F/m或F＝ma；力越大，加速度也越大；质量越大，加速度就越小。力与加速度都既有量值又有方向。加速度由力引起，方向与力相同；如果有几个力作用在物体上，就由合力产生加速度，第二定律是最重要的，动力的所有基本方程都可由它通过微积分推导出来。
　　此外，牛顿根据这两个定律制定出第三定律。牛顿第三定律指出，两个物体的相互作用总是大小相等而方向相反。对于两个直接接触的物体，这个定律比较易于理解。书本对子桌子向下的压力等于桌子对书本的向上的托力，即作用力等于反作用力。引力也是如此，飞行中的飞机向上拉地球的力在数值上等于地球向下拉飞机的力。牛顿运动定律广泛用于科学和动力学问题上。

　　牛顿运动定律
　　牛顿运动定律是艾萨克·牛顿提出了物理学的三个运动定律的总称，被誉为是经典物理学的基础。
　　为“牛顿第一定律（惯性定律：一切物体在不受任何外力的作用下，总保持匀速直线运动状态或静止状态，直到有外力迫使它改变这种状态为止。——它明确了力和运动的关系及提出了惯性的概念）”、“牛顿第二定律（物体的加速度跟物体所受的合外力F成正比，跟物体的质量成反比，加速度的方向跟合外力的方向相同。）公式：F=kma（当m单位为kg，a单位为m/s2时，k=1）、牛顿第三定律（两个物体之间的作用力和反作用力，在同一条直线上，大小相等，方向相反。）”

　　牛顿法
　　?
　　牛顿迭代法（Newton's method）又称为牛顿-拉夫逊方法（Newton-Raphson method），它是牛顿在17世纪提出的一种在实数域和复数域上近似求解方程的方法。多数方程不存在求根公式，因此求精确根非常困难，甚至不可能，从而寻找方程的近似根就显得特别重要。方法使用函数f(x)的泰勒级数的前面几项来寻找方程f(x) = 0的根。牛顿迭代法是求方程根的重要方法之一，其最大优点是在方程f(x) = 0的单根附近具有平方收敛，而且该法还可以用来求方程的重根、复根。另外该方法广泛用于计算机编程中。 设r是f(x) = 0的根，选取x0作为r初始近似值，过点（x0,f(x0)）做曲线y = f(x)的切线L，L的方程为y = f(x0)+f'(x0)(x-x0)，求出L与x轴交点的横坐标 x1 = x0-f(x0)/f'(x0)，称x1为r的一次近似值。过点（x1,f(x1)）做曲线y = f(x)的切线，并求该切线与x轴交点的横坐标 x2 = x1-f(x1)/f'(x1)，称x2为r的二次近似值。重复以上过程，得r的近似值序列，其中x(n+1)=x(n)－f(x(n))/f'(x(n))，称为r的n+1次近似值，上式称为牛顿迭代公式。 解非线性方程f(x)=0的牛顿法是把非线性方程线性化的一种近似方法。把f(x)在x0点附近展开成泰勒级数 f(x) = f(x0)+(x－x0)f'(x0)+(x－x0)^2*f''(x0)/2! +… 取其线性部分，作为非线性方程f(x) = 0的近似方程，即泰勒展开的前两项，则有f(x0)+f'(x0)(x－x0)=f(x)=0 设f'(x0)≠0则其解为x1=x0－f(x0)/f'(x0) 这样，得到牛顿法的一个迭代序列：x(n+1)=x(n)－f(x(n))/f'(x(n))。
　　光学贡献
　　牛顿望远镜
　　在牛顿以前，墨子、培根、达·芬奇等人都研究过光学现象。反射定律是人们很早就认识的光学定律之一。近代科学兴起的时候，伽利略靠望远镜发现了“新宇宙”，震惊了世界。荷兰数学家斯涅尔首先发现了光的折射定律。笛卡尔提出了光的微粒说……
　　牛顿以及跟他差不多同时代的胡克、惠更斯等人，也象伽利略、笛卡尔等前辈一样，用极大的兴趣和热情对光学进行研究。1666年，牛顿在家休假期间，得到了三棱镜，他用来进行了著名的色散试验。一束太阳光通过三棱镜后，分解成几种颜色的光谱带，牛顿再用一块带狭缝的挡板把其他颜色的光挡住，只让一种颜色的光在通过第二个三棱镜，结果出来的只是同样颜色的光。这样，他就发现了白光是由各种不同颜色的光组成的，这是第一大贡献。
　　牛顿为了验证这个发现，设法把几种不同的单色光合成白光，并且计算出不同颜色光的折射率，精确地说明了色散现象。揭开了物质的颜色之谜，原来物质的色彩是不同颜色的光在物体上有不同的反射率和折射率造成的。公元1672年，牛顿把自己的研究成果发表在《皇家学会哲学杂志》上，这是他第一次公开发表的论文。
　　许多人研究光学是为了改进折射望远镜。牛顿由于发现了白光的组成，认为折射望远镜透镜的色散现象是无法消除的(后来有人用具有不同折射率的玻璃组成的透镜消除了色散现象)，就设计和制造了反射望远镜。
　　牛顿不但擅长数学计算，而且能够自己动手制造各种试验设备并且作精细实验。为了制造望远镜，他自己设计了研磨抛光机，实验各种研磨材料。公元1668年，他制成了第一架反射望远镜样机，这是第二大贡献。公元1671年，牛顿把经过改进得反射望远镜献给了皇家学会，牛顿名声大震，并被选为皇家学会会员。反射望远镜的发明奠定了现代大型光学天文望远镜的基础。
　　同时，牛顿还进行了大量的观察实验和数学计算，比如研究惠更斯发现的冰川石的异常折射现象，胡克发现的肥皂泡的色彩现象，“牛顿环”的光学现象等等。
　　牛顿还提出了光的“微粒说”，认为光是由微粒形成的，并且走的是最快速的直线运动路径。他的“微粒说”与后来惠更斯的“波动说”构成了关于光的两大基本理论。此外，他还制作了牛顿色盘等多种光学仪器。

　　构筑力学大厦

　　牛顿是经典力学理论的集大成者。他系统的总结了伽利略、开普勒和惠更斯等人的工作，得到了著名的万有引力定律和牛顿运动三定律。
　　在牛顿以前，天文学是最显赫的学科。但是为什么行星一定按照一定规律围绕太阳运行？天文学家无法圆满解释这个问题。万有引力的发现说明，天上星体运动和地面上物体运动都受到同样的规律——力学规律的支配。
　　早在牛顿发现万有引力定律以前，已经有许多科学家严肃认真的考虑过这个问题。比如开普勒就认识到，要维持行星沿椭圆轨道运动必定有一种力在起作用，他认为这种力类似磁力，就像磁石吸铁一样。1659年，惠更斯从研究摆的运动中发现，保持物体沿圆周轨道运动需要一种向心力。胡克等人认为是引力，并且试图推到引力和距离的关系。
　　1664年，胡克发现彗星靠近太阳时轨道弯曲是因为太阳引力作用的结果；1673年，惠更斯推导出向心力定律；1679年，胡克和哈雷从向心力定律和开普勒第三定律，推导出维持行星运动的万有引力和距离的平方成反比。
　　牛顿自己回忆，1666年前后，他在老家居住的时候已经考虑过万有引力的问题。最有名的一个说法是：在假期里，牛顿常常在花园里小坐片刻。有一次，象以往屡次发生的那样，一个苹果从树上掉了下来……
　　一个苹果的偶然落地，却是人类思想史的一个转折点，它使那个坐在花园里的人的头脑开了窍，引起他的沉思：究竟是什么原因使一切物体都受到差不多总是朝向地心的吸引呢？牛顿思索着。终于，他发现了对人类具有划时代意义的万有引力。
　　牛顿高明的地方就在于他解决了胡克等人没有能够解决的数学论证问题。1679年，胡克曾经写信问牛顿，能不能根据向心力定律和引力同距离的平方成反比的定律，来证明行星沿椭圆轨道运动。牛顿没有回答这个问题。1685年，哈雷登门拜访牛顿时，牛顿已经发现了万有引力定律：两个物体之间有引力，引力和距离的平方成反比，和两个物体质量的乘积成正比。
　　当时已经有了地球半径、日地距离等精确的数据可以供计算使用。牛顿向哈雷证明地球的引力是使月亮围绕地球运动的向心力，也证明了在太阳引力作用下，行星运动符合开普勒运动三定律。
　　在哈雷的敦促下，1686年底，牛顿写成划时代的伟大著作《自然哲学的数学原理》一书。皇家学会经费不足，出不了这本书，后来靠了哈雷的资助，这部科学史上最伟大的著作之一才能够在1687年出版。
　　牛顿在这部书中，从力学的基本概念(质量、动量、惯性、力)和基本定律(运动三定律)出发，运用他所发明的微积分这一锐利的数学工具，不但从数学上论证了万有引力定律，而且把经典力学确立为完整而严密的体系，把天体力学和地面上的物体力学统一起来，实现了物理学史上第一次大的综合。 参考技术A 牛顿是英格兰的一位伟大的物理学家、数学家、科学家... 参考技术B 牛顿是科学家啊，相对论就是他发明的啊

谁有牛顿的英语介绍？？？

Isaac Newton was one of the leading figures of the scientific revolution is the seventeenth century. He devoted his life to the study of the natural world, discovering the laws of gravity and motion, analyzing light, and developing the mathematics of calculus. He was born prematurely on December 25, 1642, in Woolsthorpe, England, to a poor farming family. Newton was taken out of school to work on the family farm at the age of 16 after his stepfather's death.

够了吗？不够就在这个网页找
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/newton/media/lrk-whowasnewton.pdf
参考资料：http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/newton/media/lrk-whowasnewton.pdf

English physicist and mathematician who was born into a poor farming family. Luckily for humanity, Newton was not a good farmer, and was sent to Cambridge to study to become a preacher. At Cambridge, Newton studied mathematics, being especially strongly influenced by Euclid, although he was also influenced by Baconian and Cartesian philosophies. Newton was forced to leave Cambridge when it was closed because of the plague, and it was during this period that he made some of his most significant discoveries. With the reticence he was to show later in life, Newton did not, however, publish his results.

Newton suffered a mental breakdown in 1675 and was still recovering through 1679. In response to a letter from Hooke, he suggested that a particle, if released, would spiral in to the center of the Earth. Hooke wrote back, claiming that the path would not be a spiral, but an ellipse. Newton, who hated being bested, then proceeded to work out the mathematics of orbits. Again, he did not publish his calculations. Newton then began devoting his efforts to theological speculation and put the calculations on elliptical motion aside, telling Halley he had lost them (Westfall 1993, p. 403). Halley, who had become interested in orbits, finally convinced Newton to expand and publish his calculations. Newton devoted the period from August 1684 to spring 1686 to this task, and the result became one of the most important and influential works on physics of all times, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) (1687), often shortened to Principia Mathematica or simply "the Principia."

In Book I of Principia, Newton opened with definitions and the three laws of motion now known as Newton's laws (laws of inertia, action and reaction, and acceleration proportional to force). Book II presented Newton's new scientific philosophy which came to replace Cartesianism. Finally, Book III consisted of applications of his dynamics, including an explanation for tides and a theory of lunar motion. To test his hypothesis of universal gravitation, Newton wrote Flamsteed to ask if Saturn had been observed to slow down upon passing Jupiter. The surprised Flamsteed replied that an effect had indeed been observed, and it was closely predicted by the calculations Newton had provided. Newton's equations were further confirmed by observing the shape of the Earth to be oblate spheroidal, as Newton claimed it should be, rather than prolate spheroidal, as claimed by the Cartesians. Newton's equations also described the motion of Moon by successive approximations, and correctly predicted the return of Halley's Comet. Newton also correctly formulated and solved the first ever problem in the calculus of variations which involved finding the surface of revolution which would give minimum resistance to flow (assuming a specific drag law).

Newton invented a scientific method which was truly universal in its scope. Newton presented his methodology as a set of four rules for scientific reasoning. These rules were stated in the Principia and proposed that (1) we are to admit no more causes of natural things such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances, (2) the same natural effects must be assigned to the same causes, (3) qualities of bodies are to be esteemed as universal, and (4) propositions deduced from observation of phenomena should be viewed as accurate until other phenomena contradict them.

These four concise and universal rules for investigation were truly revolutionary. By their application, Newton formulated the universal laws of nature with which he was able to unravel virtually all the unsolved problems of his day. Newton went much further than outlining his rules for reasoning, however, actually describing how they might be applied to the solution of a given problem. The analytic method he invented far exceeded the more philosophical and less scientifically rigorous approaches of Aristotle and Aquinas. Newton refined Galileo's experimental method, creating the compositional method of experimentation still practiced today. In fact, the following description of the experimental method from Newton's Optics could easily be mistaken for a modern statement of current methods of investigation, if not for Newton's use of the words "natural philosophy" in place of the modern term "the physical sciences." Newton wrote, "As in mathematics, so in natural philosophy the investigation of difficult things by the method of analysis ought ever to precede the method of composition. This analysis consists of making experiments and observations, and in drawing general conclusions from them by induction...by this way of analysis we may proceed from compounds to ingredients, and from motions to the forces producing them; and in general from effects to their causes, and from particular causes to more general ones till the argument end in the most general. This is the method of analysis: and the synthesis consists in assuming the causes discovered and established as principles, and by them explaining the phenomena preceding from them, and proving the explanations."

Newton formulated the classical theories of mechanics and optics and invented calculus years before Leibniz. However, he did not publish his work on calculus until afterward Leibniz had published his. This led to a bitter priority dispute between English and continental mathematicians which persisted for decades, to the detriment of all concerned. Newton discovered that the binomial theorem was valid for fractional powers, but left it for Wallis to publish (which he did, with appropriate credit to Newton). Newton formulated a theory of sound, but derived a speed which did not agree with his experiments. The reason for the discrepancy was that the concept of adiabatic propagation did not yet exist, so Newton's answer was too low by a factor of , where is the ratio of heat capacities of air. Newton therefore fudged his theory until agreement was achieved (Engineering and Science, pp. 15-16).

In Optics (1704), whose publication Newton delayed until Hooke's death, Newton observed that white light could be separated by a prism into a spectrum of different colors, each characterized by a unique refractivity, and proposed the corpuscular theory of light. Newton's views on optics were born out of the original prism experiments he performed at Cambridge. In his "experimentum crucis" (crucial experiment), he found that the image produced by a prism was oval-shaped and not circular, as current theories of light would require. He observed a half-red, half-blue string through a prism, and found the ends to be disjointed. He also observed Newton's rings, which are actually a manifestation of the wave nature of light which Newton did not believe in. Newton believed that light must move faster in a medium when it is refracted towards the normal, in opposition to the result predicted by Huygens's wave theory.

Newton also formulated a system of chemistry in Query 31 at the end of Optics. In this corpuscular theory, "elements" consisted of different arrangements of atoms, and atoms consisted of small, hard, billiard ball-like particles. He explained chemical reactions in terms of the chemical affinities of the participating substances. Newton devoted a majority of his free time later in life (after 1678) to fruitless alchemical experiments.

Newton was extremely sensitive to criticism, and even ceased publishing until the death of his arch-rival Hooke. It was only through the prodding of Halley that Newton was persuaded at all to publish the Principia Mathematica. In the latter portion of his life, he devoted much of his time to alchemical researches and trying to date events in the Bible. After Newton's death, his burial place was moved. During the exhumation, it was discovered that Newton had massive amounts of mercury in his body, probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits. This would certainly explain Newton's eccentricity in late life. Newton was appointed Warden of the British Mint in 1695. Newton was knighted by Queen Anne. However, the act was "an honor bestowed not for his contributions to science, nor for his service at the Mint, but for the greater glory of party politics in the election of 1705" (Westfall 1993, p. 625).

Newton singlehandedly contributed more to the development of science than any other individual in history. He surpassed all the gains brought about by the great scientific minds of antiquity, producing a scheme of the universe which was more consistent, elegant, and intuitive than any proposed before. Newton stated explicit principles of scientific methods which applied universally to all branches of science. This was in sharp contradistinction to the earlier methodologies of Aristotle and Aquinas, which had outlined separate methods for different disciplines.

Although his methodology was strictly logical, Newton still believed deeply in the necessity of a God. His theological views are characterized by his belief that the beauty and regularity of the natural world could only "proceed from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful Being." He felt that "the Supreme God exists necessarily, and by the same necessity he exists always and everywhere." Newton believed that God periodically intervened to keep the universe going on track. He therefore denied the importance of Leibniz's vis viva as nothing more than an interesting quantity which remained constant in elastic collisions and therefore had no physical importance or meaning.

Although earlier philosophers such as Galileo and John Philoponus had used experimental procedures, Newton was the first to explicitly define and systematize their use. His methodology produced a neat balance between theoretical and experimental inquiry and between the mathematical and mechanical approaches. Newton mathematized all of the physical sciences, reducing their study to a rigorous, universal, and rational procedure which marked the ushering in of the Age of Reason. Thus, the basic principles of investigation set down by Newton have persisted virtually without alteration until modern times. In the years since Newton's death, they have borne fruit far exceeding anything even Newton could have imagined. They form the foundation on which the technological civilization of today rests. The principles expounded by Newton were even applied to the social sciences, influencing the economic theories of Adam Smith and the decision to make the United States legislature bicameral. These latter applications, however, pale in contrast to Newton's scientific contributions.

It is therefore no exaggeration to identify Newton as the single most important contributor to the development of modern science. The Latin inscription on Newton's tomb, despite its bombastic language, is thus fully justified in proclaiming, "Mortals! rejoice at so great an ornament to the human race!" Alexander Pope's couplet is also apropos: "Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night; God said, Let Newton be! and all was light."

参考资料：http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Newton.html 参考技术A 牛顿，伟大的英国物理学家，1642年12月25日生于林肯郡伍尔索普村的一个农民家庭．12岁他在格兰撒姆的公立学校读书时，就表现了对实验和机械发明的兴趣，自己动手制作了水钟、风磨和日晷等．1661年，牛顿就读于剑桥大学的三一学院，成了一名优秀学生．1669年，年仅27岁，就担任了剑桥的数学教授．1672年当选为英国皇家学会会员．

1685～1687年，在天文学家哈雷的鼓励和赞助下，牛顿发表了著名的《自然哲学的数学原理》，完成了具有历史意义的发现——运动定律和万有引力定律，对近代自然科学的发展，作出了重大贡献．1703年，当选为英国皇家学会会长．1727年3月27日，逝世于伦敦郊外的一个小村落里．

牛顿不仅对于力学，在其他方面也有很大贡献．在数学方面，他发现了二项式定理，创立了微积分学；在光学方面，进行了太阳光的色散实验，证明了白光是由单色光复合而成的，研究了颜色的理论，还发明了反射望远镜．
回答者：匿名 1-23 20:50

http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Newton.html
回答者：IQ太低 - 见习魔法师 二级 1-23 20:50

Isaac Newton was one of the leading figures of the scientific revolution is the seventeenth century. He devoted his life to the study of the natural world, discovering the laws of gravity and motion, analyzing light, and developing the mathematics of calculus. He was born prematurely on December 25, 1642, in Woolsthorpe, England, to a poor farming family. Newton was taken out of school to work on the family farm at the age of 16 after his stepfather's death.

够了吗？不够就在这个网页找
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/newton/media/lrk-whowasnewton.pdf
参考资料：http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/newton/media/lrk-whowasnewton.pdf

English physicist and mathematician who was born into a poor farming family. Luckily for humanity, Newton was not a good farmer, and was sent to Cambridge to study to become a preacher. At Cambridge, Newton studied mathematics, being especially strongly influenced by Euclid, although he was also influenced by Baconian and Cartesian philosophies. Newton was forced to leave Cambridge when it was closed because of the plague, and it was during this period that he made some of his most significant discoveries. With the reticence he was to show later in life, Newton did not, however, publish his results.

Newton suffered a mental breakdown in 1675 and was still recovering through 1679. In response to a letter from Hooke, he suggested that a particle, if released, would spiral in to the center of the Earth. Hooke wrote back, claiming that the path would not be a spiral, but an ellipse. Newton, who hated being bested, then proceeded to work out the mathematics of orbits. Again, he did not publish his calculations. Newton then began devoting his efforts to theological speculation and put the calculations on elliptical motion aside, telling Halley he had lost them (Westfall 1993, p. 403). Halley, who had become interested in orbits, finally convinced Newton to expand and publish his calculations. Newton devoted the period from August 1684 to spring 1686 to this task, and the result became one of the most important and influential works on physics of all times, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) (1687), often shortened to Principia Mathematica or simply "the Principia."

In Book I of Principia, Newton opened with definitions and the three laws of motion now known as Newton's laws (laws of inertia, action and reaction, and acceleration proportional to force). Book II presented Newton's new scientific philosophy which came to replace Cartesianism. Finally, Book III consisted of applications of his dynamics, including an explanation for tides and a theory of lunar motion. To test his hypothesis of universal gravitation, Newton wrote Flamsteed to ask if Saturn had been observed to slow down upon passing Jupiter. The surprised Flamsteed replied that an effect had indeed been observed, and it was closely predicted by the calculations Newton had provided. Newton's equations were further confirmed by observing the shape of the Earth to be oblate spheroidal, as Newton claimed it should be, rather than prolate spheroidal, as claimed by the Cartesians. Newton's equations also described the motion of Moon by successive approximations, and correctly predicted the return of Halley's Comet. Newton also correctly formulated and solved the first ever problem in the calculus of variations which involved finding the surface of revolution which would give minimum resistance to flow (assuming a specific drag law).

Newton invented a scientific method which was truly universal in its scope. Newton presented his methodology as a set of four rules for scientific reasoning. These rules were stated in the Principia and proposed that (1) we are to admit no more causes of natural things such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances, (2) the same natural effects must be assigned to the same causes, (3) qualities of bodies are to be esteemed as universal, and (4) propositions deduced from observation of phenomena should be viewed as accurate until other phenomena contradict them.

These four concise and universal rules for investigation were truly revolutionary. By their application, Newton formulated the universal laws of nature with which he was able to unravel virtually all the unsolved problems of his day. Newton went much further than outlining his rules for reasoning, however, actually describing how they might be applied to the solution of a given problem. The analytic method he invented far exceeded the more philosophical and less scientifically rigorous approaches of Aristotle and Aquinas. Newton refined Galileo's experimental method, creating the compositional method of experimentation still practiced today. In fact, the following description of the experimental method from Newton's Optics could easily be mistaken for a modern statement of current methods of investigation, if not for Newton's use of the words "natural philosophy" in place of the modern term "the physical sciences." Newton wrote, "As in mathematics, so in natural philosophy the investigation of difficult things by the method of analysis ought ever to precede the method of composition. This analysis consists of making experiments and observations, and in drawing general conclusions from them by induction...by this way of analysis we may proceed from compounds to ingredients, and from motions to the forces producing them; and in general from effects to their causes, and from particular causes to more general ones till the argument end in the most general. This is the method of analysis: and the synthesis consists in assuming the causes discovered and established as principles, and by them explaining the phenomena preceding from them, and proving the explanations."

Newton formulated the classical theories of mechanics and optics and invented calculus years before Leibniz. However, he did not publish his work on calculus until afterward Leibniz had published his. This led to a bitter priority dispute between English and continental mathematicians which persisted for decades, to the detriment of all concerned. Newton discovered that the binomial theorem was valid for fractional powers, but left it for Wallis to publish (which he did, with appropriate credit to Newton). Newton formulated a theory of sound, but derived a speed which did not agree with his experiments. The reason for the discrepancy was that the concept of adiabatic propagation did not yet exist, so Newton's answer was too low by a factor of , where is the ratio of heat capacities of air. Newton therefore fudged his theory until agreement was achieved (Engineering and Science, pp. 15-16).

In Optics (1704), whose publication Newton delayed until Hooke's death, Newton observed that white light could be separated by a prism into a spectrum of different colors, each characterized by a unique refractivity, and proposed the corpuscular theory of light. Newton's views on optics were born out of the original prism experiments he performed at Cambridge. In his "experimentum crucis" (crucial experiment), he found that the image produced by a prism was oval-shaped and not circular, as current theories of light would require. He observed a half-red, half-blue string through a prism, and found the ends to be disjointed. He also observed Newton's rings, which are actually a manifestation of the wave nature of light which Newton did not believe in. Newton believed that light must move faster in a medium when it is refracted towards the normal, in opposition to the result predicted by Huygens's wave theory.

Newton also formulated a system of chemistry in Query 31 at the end of Optics. In this corpuscular theory, "elements" consisted of different arrangements of atoms, and atoms consisted of small, hard, billiard ball-like particles. He explained chemical reactions in terms of the chemical affinities of the participating substances. Newton devoted a majority of his free time later in life (after 1678) to fruitless alchemical experiments.

Newton was extremely sensitive to criticism, and even ceased publishing until the death of his arch-rival Hooke. It was only through the prodding of Halley that Newton was persuaded at all to publish the Principia Mathematica. In the latter portion of his life, he devoted much of his time to alchemical researches and trying to date events in the Bible. After Newton's death, his burial place was moved. During the exhumation, it was discovered that Newton had massive amounts of mercury in his body, probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits. This would certainly explain Newton's eccentricity in late life. Newton was appointed Warden of the British Mint in 1695. Newton was knighted by Queen Anne. However, the act was "an honor bestowed not for his contributions to science, nor for his service at the Mint, but for the greater glory of party politics in the election of 1705" (Westfall 1993, p. 625).

Newton singlehandedly contributed more to the development of science than any other individual in history. He surpassed all the gains brought about by the great scientific minds of antiquity, producing a scheme of the universe which was more consistent, elegant, and intuitive than any proposed before. Newton stated explicit principles of scientific methods which applied universally to all branches of science. This was in sharp contradistinction to the earlier methodologies of Aristotle and Aquinas, which had outlined separate methods for different disciplines.

Although his methodology was strictly logical, Newton still believed deeply in the necessity of a God. His theological views are characterized by his belief that the beauty and regularity of the natural world could only "proceed from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful Being." He felt that "the Supreme God exists necessarily, and by the same necessity he exists always and everywhere." Newton believed that God periodically intervened to keep the universe going on track. He therefore denied the importance of Leibniz's vis viva as nothing more than an interesting quantity which remained constant in elastic collisions and therefore had no physical importance or meaning.

Although earlier philosophers such as Galileo and John Philoponus had used experimental procedures, Newton was the first to explicitly define and systematize their use. His methodology produced a neat balance between theoretical and experimental inquiry and between the mathematical and mechanical approaches. Newton mathematized all of the physical sciences, reducing their study to a rigorous, universal, and rational procedure which marked the ushering in of the Age of Reason. Thus, the basic principles of investigation set down by Newton have persisted virtually without alteration until modern times. In the years since Newton's death, they have borne fruit far exceeding anything even Newton could have imagined. They form the foundation on which the technological civilization of today rests. The principles expounded by Newton were even applied to the social sciences, influencing the economic theories of Adam Smith and the decision to make the United States legislature bicameral. These latter applications, however, pale in contrast to Newton's scientific contributions.

It is therefore no exaggeration to identify Newton as the single most important contributor to the development of modern science. The Latin inscription on Newton's tomb, despite its bombastic language, is thus fully justified in proclaiming, "Mortals! rejoice at so great an ornament to the human race!" Alexander Pope's couplet is also apropos: "Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night; God said, Let Newton be! and all was light."

参考资料：http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Newton.html
回答者：匿名 1-23 20:50

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

English physicist, mathematician, and natural philosopher, considered one of the most important scientists of all time. Newton formulated laws of universal gravitation and motion—laws that explain how objects move on Earth as well as through the heavens (see Mechanics). He established the modern study of optics—or the behavior of light—and built the first reflecting telescope. His mathematical insights led him to invent the area of mathematics called calculus (which German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz also developed independently). Newton’s revolutionary contributions explained the workings of a large part of the physical world in mathematical terms, and they suggested that science may provide explanations for other phenomena as well.
回答者：熊猫公主1213 - 高级魔法师 六级 1-23 20:50

Sir Isaac Newton, (4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727) [ OS: 25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727][1] was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, alchemist, and natural philosopher, regarded by many as the greatest figure in the history of science.[2] His treatise Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics. By deriving Kepler's laws of planetary motion from this system, he was the first to show that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws. The unifying and predictive power of his laws was integral to the scientific revolution, the advancement of heliocentrism, and the broader acceptance of the notion that rational investigation can reveal the inner workings of nature.

In mechanics, Newton also markedly enunciated the principles of conservation of momentum and angular momentum. In optics, he invented the reflecting telescope and discovered that the spectrum of colors observed when white light passes through a prism is inherent in the white light and not added by the prism (as Roger Bacon had claimed in the thirteenth century). Newton notably argued that light is composed of particles. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling, studied the speed of sound, and proposed a theory of the origin of stars. In mathematics, Newton shares the credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of calculus. He also demonstrated the generalized binomial theorem, developed the so-called "Newton's method" for approximating the zeroes of a function, and contributed to the study of power series.

French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange often said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived, and once added that he was also "the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish."[3] English poet Alexander Pope was moved by Newton's accomplishments to write the famous epitaph: 参考技术B Isaac Newton
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Sir Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton at 46 in Godfrey Kneller's 1689 portrait
Born 4 January 1643 [OS: 25 December 1642][1]
Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Lincolnshire, England
Died 31 March 1727 [OS: 20 March 1727][1]
Kensington, London, England
Occupation Physicist, mathematician, astronomer, alchemist, and natural philosopher

Sir Isaac Newton, (4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727) [ OS: 25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727][1] was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, alchemist, and natural philosopher, regarded by many as the greatest figure in the history of science.[2] His treatise Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics. By deriving Kepler's laws of planetary motion from this system, he was the first to show that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws. The unifying and predictive power of his laws was integral to the scientific revolution, the advancement of heliocentrism, and the broader acceptance of the notion that rational investigation can reveal the inner workings of nature.

In mechanics, Newton also markedly enunciated the principles of conservation of momentum and angular momentum. In optics, he invented the reflecting telescope and discovered that the spectrum of colors observed when white light passes through a prism is inherent in the white light and not added by the prism (as Roger Bacon had claimed in the thirteenth century). Newton notably argued that light is composed of particles. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling, studied the speed of sound, and proposed a theory of the origin of stars. In mathematics, Newton shares the credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of calculus. He also demonstrated the generalized binomial theorem, developed the so-called "Newton's method" for approximating the zeroes of a function, and contributed to the study of power series.

French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange often said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived, and once added that he was also "the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish."[3] English poet Alexander Pope was moved by Newton's accomplishments to write the famous epitaph:
“ Nature and nature's laws lay hid in night;

God said "Let Newton be" and all was light.
”
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Biography
o 1.1 Early years
o 1.2 Middle years
+ 1.2.1 Mathematics
+ 1.2.2 Optics
+ 1.2.3 Mechanics and Gravitation
o 1.3 Later life
* 2 Religious views
o 2.1 Newton's effect on religious thought
* 3 Newton and the counterfeiters
* 4 Enlightenment philosophers
* 5 Newton's laws of motion
* 6 Newton's apple
* 7 Writings by Newton
* 8 See also
* 9 Footnotes and references
* 10 Resources
o 10.1 References
o 10.2 Further reading
* 11 External links

Biography
The life of
Isaac Newton
Early life
Middle years
Later life
Writing Principia
Religious views
Occult studies

Early years

Main article: Isaac Newton's early life and achievements

Newton was born at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire. He was born to a family of farmers who owned animals and land, thus making them fairly wealthy. The location he was born at was about seven miles from Grantham, where he later attended school. By his own later accounts, Newton was born prematurely and no one expected him to live; his mother Hannah Ayscough said that his body at that time could have fit inside a quart mug. His father, also named Isaac Newton, had been a yeoman farmer and had died three months before Newton's birth, at the time of the English Civil War. When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Margery Ayscough.

According to E.T. Bell and H. Eves:

Newton began his schooling in the village schools and was later sent to The King's School, Grantham, where he became the top boy in the school. At Kings, he lodged with the local apothecary, William Clarke and eventually became engaged to the apothecary's stepdaughter, Anne Storey, before he went off to Cambridge University at the age of 19. As Newton became engrossed in his studies, the romance cooled and Miss Storey married someone else. It is said he kept a warm memory of this love, but Newton had no other recorded "sweet-hearts" and never married.[4]

However, Bell and Eves' sources for this claim, William Stukeley and Mrs. Vincent (the former Miss Storey - actually named Katherine, not Anne), merely say that Newton entertained "a passion" for Storey while he lodged at the Clarke house. From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The King's School, Grantham (where his signature can still be seen upon a library window sill). He was removed from school, and by October 1659, he was to be found at Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, where his mother attempted to make a farmer of him. He was, by later reports of his contemporaries, thoroughly unhappy with the work. It appears to be Henry Stokes, master at the King's School, who persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his education. This he did at the age of eighteen, achieving an admirable final report.

In June 1661, he was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge. At that time, the college's teachings were based on those of Aristotle, but Newton preferred to read the more advanced ideas of modern philosophers such as Descartes and astronomers such as Galileo, Copernicus and Kepler. In 1665, he discovered the generalized binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that would later become calculus. Soon after Newton had obtained his degree in 1665, the University closed down as a precaution against the Great Plague. For the next 18 months Newton worked at home on calculus, optics and the law of gravitation.

Middle years

Main article: Isaac Newton's middle years

Isaac Newton (Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Men of Science. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1889)
Isaac Newton (Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Men of Science. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1889)

Mathematics

Newton and Gottfried Leibniz developed calculus independently, using their own unique notations. Although Newton had worked out his method years before Leibniz, he published almost nothing about it until 1693, and did not give a full account until 1704. Meanwhile, Leibniz began publishing a full account of his methods in 1684. Moreover, Leibniz's notation and "differential Method" were universally adopted on the Continent, and after 1820 or so, in the British Empire. Newton claimed that he had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared being mocked for it. Starting in 1699, other members of the Royal Society accused Leibniz of plagiarism, and the dispute broke out in full force in 1711. Thus began the bitter calculus priority dispute with Leibniz, which marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter's death in 1716. This dispute created a divide between British and Continental mathematicians that may have retarded the progress of British mathematics by at least a century.

Newton is generally credited with the generalized binomial theorem, valid for any exponent. He discovered Newton's identities, Newton's method, classified cubic plane curves (polynomials of degree three in two variables), made substantial contributions to the theory of finite differences, and was the first to use fractional indices and to employ coordinate geometry to derive solutions to Diophantine equations. He approximated partial sums of the harmonic series by logarithms (a precursor to Euler's summation formula), and was the first to use power series with confidence and to revert power series. He also discovered a new formula for pi.

He was elected Lucasian professor of mathematics in 1669. In that day, any fellow of Cambridge or Oxford had to be an ordained Anglican priest. However, the terms of the Lucasian professorship required that the holder not be active in the church (presumably so as to have more time for science). Newton argued that this should exempt him from the ordination requirement, and Charles II, whose permission was needed, accepted this argument. Thus a conflict between Newton's religious views and Anglican orthodoxy was averted.

Optics

From 1670 to 1672, Newton lectured on optics. During this period he investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that a prism could decompose white light into a spectrum of colours, and that a lens and a second prism could recompose the multicoloured spectrum into white light.
A replica of Newton's 6-inch reflecting telescope of 1672 for the Royal Society.
A replica of Newton's 6-inch reflecting telescope of 1672 for the Royal Society.

He also showed that the coloured light does not change its properties, by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects. Newton noted that regardless of whether it was reflected or scattered or transmitted, it stayed the same colour. Thus the colours we observe are the result of how objects interact with the incident already-coloured light, not the result of objects generating the colour. For more details, see Newton's theory of colour.

From this work he concluded that any refracting telescope would suffer from the dispersion of light into colours, and invented a reflecting telescope (today known as a Newtonian telescope) to bypass that problem. By grinding his own mirrors, using Newton's rings to judge the quality of the optics for his telescopes, he was able to produce a superior instrument to the refracting telescope, due primarily to the wider diameter of the mirror. In 1671 the Royal Society asked for a demonstration of his reflecting telescope. Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes On Colour, which he later expanded into his Opticks. When Robert Hooke criticised some of Newton's ideas, Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public debate. The two men remained enemies until Hooke's death.

Newton argued that light is composed of particles, but he had to associate them with waves to explain the diffraction of light (Opticks Bk. II, Props. XII-L). Later physicists instead favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for diffraction. Today's quantum mechanics restores the idea of "wave-particle duality", although photons bear very little resemblance to Newton's corpuscles (e.g., corpuscles refracted by accelerating toward the denser medium).

In his Hypothesis of Light of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the ether to transmit forces between particles. The contact with the theosophist Henry More, revived his interest in alchemy. He replaced the ether with occult forces based on Hermetic ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles. John Maynard Keynes, who acquired many of Newton's writings on alchemy, stated that "Newton was not the first of the age of reason: he was the last of the magicians."[5] Newton's interest in alchemy cannot be isolated from his contributions to science.[6] (This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science.) Had he not relied on the occult idea of action at a distance, across a vacuum, he might not have developed his theory of gravity. (See also Isaac Newton's occult studies.)

In 1704 Newton wrote Opticks, in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another,...and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition?"[7] Newton also constructed a primitive form of a frictional electrostatic generator, using a glass globe (Optics, 8th Query).

Mechanics and Gravitation
Newton's own copy of his Principia, with hand written corrections for the second edition.
Newton's own copy of his Principia, with hand written corrections for the second edition.

Further information: The writing of Principia Mathematica

In 1679, Newton returned to his work on mechanics, i.e., gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets, with reference to Kepler's laws of motion, and consulting with Hooke and Flamsteed on the subject. He published his results in De Motu Corporum (1684). This contained the beginnings of the laws of motion that would inform the Principia.

The Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (now known as the Principia) was published on July 5, 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Edmond Halley. In this work Newton stated the three universal laws of motion that were not to be improved upon for more than two hundred years. He used the Latin word gravitas (weight) for the force that would become known as gravity, and defined the law of universal gravitation. In the same work he presented the first analytical determination, based on Boyle's law, of the speed of sound in air.

With the Principia, Newton became internationally recognised. He acquired a circle of admirers, including the Swiss-born mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, with whom he formed an intense relationship that lasted until 1693. The end of this friendship led Newton to a nervous breakdown.

Later life

For more details on this topic, see Isaac Newton's later life.

Isaac Newton in 1712
Isaac Newton in 1712

In the 1690s Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal interpretation of the Bible. Henry More's belief in the universe and rejection of Cartesian dualism may have influenced Newton's religious ideas. A manuscript he sent to John Locke in which he disputed the existence of the Trinity was never published. Later works — The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728) and Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John (1733) — were published after his death. He also devoted a great deal of time to alchemy (see above).

Newton was also a member of the Parliament of England from 1689 to 1690 and in 1701, but his only recorded comments were to complain about a cold draft in the chamber and request that the window be closed.

Newton moved to London to take up the post of warden of the Royal Mint in 1696, a position that he had obtained through the patronage of Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, then Chancellor of the Exchequer. He took charge of England's great recoining, somewhat treading on the toes of Master Lucas (and finagling Edmond Halley into the job of deputy comptroller of the temporary Chester branch). Newton became perhaps the best-known Master of the Mint upon Lucas' death in 1699, a position Newton held until his death. These appointments were intended as sinecures, but Newton took them seriously, retiring from his Cambridge duties in 1701, and exercising his power to reform the currency and punish clippers and counterfeiters. As Master of the Mint in 1717 Newton unofficially moved the Pound Sterling from the silver standard to the gold standard by creating a relationship between gold coins and the silver penny in the "Law of Queen Anne"; these were all great reforms at the time, adding considerably to the wealth and stability of England. It was his work at the Mint, rather than his earlier contributions to science, that earned him a knighthood from Queen Anne in 1705.
Newton's grave in Westminster Abbey
Newton's grave in Westminster Abbey

Newton was made President of the Royal Society in 1703 and an associate of the French Académie des Sciences. In his position at the Royal Society, Newton made an enemy of John Flamsteed, the Astronomer Royal, by prematurely publishing Flamsteed's star catalogue, which Newton had used in his studies.

Newton died in London on March 20th, 1727, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. His half-niece, Catherine Barton Conduitt,[8] served as his hostess in social affairs at his house on Jermyn Street in London; he was her "very loving Uncle",[9] according to his letter to her when she was recovering from smallpox. Although Newton, who had no children, had divested much of his estate onto relatives in his last years he actually died intestate. His considerable liquid estate was divided equally between his eight half-nieces and half-nephews (three Pilkingtons, three Smiths and two Bartons (including Catherine Barton Conduitt).[10] Woolsthorpe Manor passed to his heir-in-law, a John Newton ("God knows a poor representative of so great a man"), who, after six years of "cock[fight]ing, horse racing, drinking and folly" was forced to mortgage and then sell the manor before dying in a drunken accident.[11]

After his death, Newton's body was discovered to have had massive amounts of mercury in it, probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits. Mercury poisoning could explain Newton's eccentricity in late life.[12]

Religious views

Main article: Isaac Newton's religious views
See also: Isaac Newton's occult studies

Although the laws of motion and universal gravitation became Newton's best-known discoveries, he warned against using them to view the universe as a mere machine, as if akin to a great clock. He said, "Gravity explains the motions of the planets, but it cannot explain who set the planets in motion. God governs all things and knows all that is or can be done."[13]

His scientific fame notwithstanding, Newton's study of the Bible and of the early Church Fathers were among his greatest passions. He devoted more time to the study of the Scriptures, the Fathers, and to Alchemy than to science, and said, "I have a fundamental belief in the Bible as the Word of God, written by those who were inspired. I study the Bible daily."[14] Newton himself wrote works on textual criticism, most notably An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture. Newton also placed the crucifixion of Jesus Christ at 3 April, AD 33, which is now the accepted traditional date. He also attempted, unsuccessfully, to find hidden messages within the Bible (See Bible code). Despite his focus on theology and alchemy, Newton tested and investigated these ideas with the scientific method, observing, hypothesising, and testing his theories. To Newton, his scientific and religious experiments were one and the same, observing and understanding how the world functioned.

Newton may have rejected the church's doctrine of the Trinity. In a minority view, T.C. Pfizenmaier argues that he more likely held the Eastern Orthodox view of the Trinity rather than the Western one held by Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and most Protestants.[15] In his own day, he was also accused of being a Rosicrucian (as were many in the Royal Society and in the court of Charles II).[16]

In his own lifetime, Newton wrote more on religion than he did on natural science. He believed in a rationally immanent world, but he rejected the hylozoism implicit in Leibniz and Baruch Spinoza. Thus, the ordered and dynamically informed universe could be understood, and must be understood, by an active reason, but this universe, to be perfect and ordained, had to be regular.

Newton's effect on religious thought
"Newton," by William Blake; here, Newton is depicted as a 'divine geome 参考技术C 牛顿生平

牛顿，伟大的英国物理学家，1642年12月25日生于林肯郡伍尔索普村的一个农民家庭．12岁他在格兰撒姆的公立学校读书时，就表现了对实验和机械发明的兴趣，自己动手制作了水钟、风磨和日晷等．1661年，牛顿就读于剑桥大学的三一学院，成了一名优秀学生．1669年，年仅27岁，就担任了剑桥的数学教授．1672年当选为英国皇家学会会员．

1685～1687年，在天文学家哈雷的鼓励和赞助下，牛顿发表了著名的《自然哲学的数学原理》，完成了具有历史意义的发现——运动定律和万有引力定律，对近代自然科学的发展，作出了重大贡献．1703年，当选为英国皇家学会会长．1727年3月27日，逝世于伦敦郊外的一个小村落里．

牛顿不仅对于力学，在其他方面也有很大贡献．在数学方面，他发现了二项式定理，创立了微积分学；在光学方面，进行了太阳光的色散实验，证明了白光是由单色光复合而成的，研究了颜色的理论，还发明了反射望远镜． 参考技术D Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

English physicist, mathematician, and natural philosopher, considered one of the most important scientists of all time. Newton formulated laws of universal gravitation and motion—laws that explain how objects move on Earth as well as through the heavens (see Mechanics). He established the modern study of optics—or the behavior of light—and built the first reflecting telescope. His mathematical insights led him to invent the area of mathematics called calculus (which German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz also developed independently). Newton’s revolutionary contributions explained the workings of a large part of the physical world in mathematical terms, and they suggested that science may provide explanations for other phenomena as well.