CHAPTER 1 Introduction to database (第一章 数据库简介)

Posted 2020-09-29 ZQXTXK

 

Chaper  Objectives  （章节目标）

In this chapter you will learn:   (在这一章节中，你将学习)

1. Some common uses of database systems.   (数据库系统的一些普通扩法)

2.The characteristics of file-based systems. (基于文件系统的一些特点。)

3. The problems with the file-based systems.  (基于文件系统拥有的一些问题。)

4. The meaning of term "database". (数据库一词的含义。)

5. The meaning of term "database management system "(DBMS).  (“数据库管理系统”一词的含义。)

6.Thy typical functions of a DBMS.(DBMS的典型功能。)

7.The major components of the DBMS environment. （DBMS体系的主要构成部分。）

8. The personnel involved in the DBMS environment.   (DBMS体系涉及的人员。)

9. The history of the development of DBMSs. (DBM的历史发展。)

10. The advantages and disadvantages of DBMSs. (DBMS的优点和缺点。)

 

 

This history of database system research is one of exceptional productivity and startling economic impact. Barely 20 years old as a basic science research field, database research has fueled an information services industry estimated at $ 10 billion per year in the U.S. alone. Achievements in database research underpin fundamental advances in communications systems, transportation and logistics, financial management, knowledge-based  systems, accessibility to scientific literature, and a host of other civilian and defense applications. They also serve as the foundation for considerable progress in the basic science fields ranging from computing to biology.

(Silerschatz rt al., 1990,1996)

 (数据库系统研究的历史)

 

This   quotation is from a workshop on database systems at the beginning of the 1990s and expanded upon in a subsequent workshop, and it provides substantial motivation for the study of the subject of the book: the database system. Since these workshops , the importance of the database system has, if anything, increased, with significant developments in hardware capability, hardware capacity, and communications, including the emergence of the Internet（因特网）, electronic commerce（电子商务）, business intelligence（商务智能）, mobile communications(移动通信), and grid computing（网格计算）.The database system is arguably the most important development in the field of software engineering(软件工程领域)，and the databse is now the underlying framework of the information system, fundamentally changing the way that many organizations operate. Database technology has been an exciting area to work in and, since its emergence,has been the catalyst for many important developments in software engineering. The worshop emphasized that developments in database systems was not over, as some people thought. In fact, to paraphrase an old saying, it may be that  we are only the end of the beginning of the developmemt. The applications that will have to be handled in the furture are cso much more complex that we will have to rethink many of the algorithms currently being used, such as the algorithms for file storage, file access, and query optimization. The development of these original algorithms has significant ramifications in software engineering and, with doubt, the development of new algorithms will have similar effects. In this first chapter, we introduce the database system.

 

Structure of this Chapter  (本章架构)  In section 1.1, we examine some uses of database systems that we find in everyday life  but are not necessarily aware of.  In section 1.2 and 1.3, we compare the early file-based approach to computerizing the manual file system with the modern, and more usable, database approach. In section 1.4, we discuss the four types of role that people perform in the database environment, namely: data and database administrators, database designers, application developers, and end-users. In section 1.5, we provide a brief history of database systems, and follow that in section 1.6 with a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of database systems. 

　　Throughout this book, we illustrate concepts using a case study based on a ficitious property management company called DreamHome. We provide a detailed description of this case study in section 11.4 and Appendix A. In Appendix B, we present further case studies that are intended to provide additional realistic projects for the reader. there will be exercises based on these case studies at the end of many chapters. 

 

 

1.1 Introduction (简介)

The database is now such an integral part of our day-to-day life that often we are not aware that we are using one. To start our discussion of database, in this section we examine some applications of database systems.  For the purpose of this discussion, we consider a database to be a collection of related data and a databse management system (DBMS) to be the software that manages  and controls access to the database.  A database application is simply a program that interacts with the database at some point in its execution. We also use the more inclusive term database system as a collection of application programs that interact with the database along with the DBMS and the database itself. We provide more accurate definitions in section 1.3. 

现在， 数据库是我们生活中不可或缺的一部分，我们在不经意间使用他。 在开始讨论数据库前，本节，我们了解一下一些数据库应用程序。为了讨论的目的，我们认为数据库是相关数据的集合，数据库管理系统是管理和控制数据库访问的软件。数据库应用程序是一个简单的程序，在某一时刻执行与数据库交互。我们也使用了一些更具有包容性的数据库系统的词汇作为DBMS和数据库本身的集合。在1.3 节，我们提供了更精确的定义。

 

 

Purchases from supermarket(在超市购物)

When you  purchase goods from your local supermarket, it is likely that a database is accessed. The checkout assistant uses a bar code reader to scan each of your purchases. This reader is linked to a database application that uses the bar code to find out the price of the item from a product database. The application then reduces the number of such items in stock and displays the price on the cash register. If the reorder level fall below a specified threshold, the database system may automatically place an order to obtain more of that item. If a customer telephones the supermarket, an assistant can check whether an item is in stock by running an application program that determines availability from database. 

当你在当地超市购物量， 这很有可能访问了数据库。结账服务员使用条形码扫描仪扫描你所购买的每一件物品。 这个扫描仪链搂到一个数据库，使用条形码从产品数据库中找出每一件商品的价格。接着，应用程序减少诸如此类商品的库存品，并且在收银机上显示相应的价格。（......）如果客户给超市打电话咨询商品，服务员可能通过运行一个来自数据库确定无疑的应用程序来核实商品库存。

 

Purchases uasing your credit card（使用信用卡购物）

When you purchase goods using your credit card, the assistant normally checks whether you have sufficient credit left to make the purchase. This check may be carried out by telephone or automatically by a card reader linked to a computer system. In either case, there is a database somewhere that contains information about the purchases that you have made using your credit card. To check your credit, there is a database  application that uses your credit card number to check that the price of the goods you wish to buy, together with the sum of the purchases that you already made this month, is within your credit limit. When the purchase is confirmed, the details of the purchase are added to this database. The database application also accesses the database to confirm that the credit card is not on the list of stolen or lost cards before authorizing the purchase. There are other database applications to send out monthly statements to each cardholer and to credit accounts when payment is received. 

 当你使用信用卡购物时，服务员通常会检查你的卡是否有足够的信用额度来支付所买的商品。这种检查的过程可能是通过电话或者链入计算机网络系统的一个读卡器。另外， 在某个地方存在一个数据库右能记录了你使用信用卡购物的信息。 当你复查你的信用卡额度时，存在一个数据库，通过信用卡帐号检查你要购买物品的价值，及本月在信用卡额度内快购物的总价。

Booking a vacation with a travel agent (和旅行机构订一个度假)

 

When you make inquiries about a vacation, your travel agent may access several database containing vacation and fight details. When you book your vacation, the system has to ensure that two different agents do not book the same vacation or overbook the seats on the flight. For example, if there is only one seat left on the flight from New York to London and two agents try to reserve the last seat at same time, the system has to recognize this situation, allow one booking to proceed, and inform the other agent that there are now no seats available. The travel agent may have another, usually separate, database for invoicing.

 

Using the local library （使用当地的图书馆）

 

Your local library probably has a database containing details of the books in the library, details of the readers, reservations, and so on. There will be a computerized index that allows readers to find a book based on its title, authors,or subject area. The database system handles reservations to allow a reader to reserve a book and to be informed by mail or email when the book is available. The system also sends reminders to borrowers who have failed to return books by the due date. Typically, the system will have a bar code reader, similar to that used by the supermarket described earlier, that is used to keep track of books coming in and go out of the library.

 

Taking out insurance

 

Whenever you wish to take out insurance -for example personal insurance, property insurance, or auto insurance, your agent may access several database containing figures for various insurance organizations. The personal details that you supply, such as name, address, age, and whether you drink or smoke, are used by the database system to determine the cost of the insurance. An insurance agent can search several databases to find the organization that gives you best deal.

 

Renting a DVD （租 DVD）

 

When you wish to rent a DVD from a DVD rental company, you will probably find that the company maintains a database consisting of the DVD titles that it stocks, details on the copies it has for each title, DVDs they are currently renting and date they are returned. The database may even store more detailed information on each DVD, such as its director and its actors. The company can use this information to monitor stock usage and predict future buying trends based on historic rental data.  

 

Using the Internet   (使用因特网)

 

Many of the sites on the Internet are driven by database applications. For example, you may visit an online bookstore that allows you to browse and buy book, such Amazon.com. The book store allows you to browse books in different categories, such as computing or management, or by author name. In either case, there is a database on the organization’s Web sever that consists of the book details, availability, shopping histories, publishers, reviews and detailed descriptions. The database allows books to be cross-referenced: for example, a book may be listed under several categories, such as computing, programming languages, bestsellers, and recommended titles. The cross-referencing also allows Amazon to give you information on other books that are typically ordered along with the title you are interested in.

 

As with an earlier example, you can provide your credit card details to purchase one or more books online. Amazon.com personalizes its services for customers who return to its site by keeping a record of all previous transactions, including items purchased, shipping, and credit card details. When you return to the site, you might be greeted by name and presented with a list of recommended titles based ob previous purchases.

 

Studying at collage(大学学习)

 

If you are at collage, there will be a database system containing information about yourself, your major and minor field, the courses you are enrolled in, details about your financial aid, and the classes you have taken in previous years or are taking this years or are taking this year, and details of all your examination results. There may also be a database containing details relating to the next year’s admissions and a database containing details of staff working at the university, giving personal details and salary-related details for the payroll office.

 

These are only a few of the applications for database systems, and you will no doubt know of plenty of others. Thought we know take such applications for granted, the database system is a highly complex technology that has been developed over the past 40 years. In the next section, we discuss the per-cursor to the database system: the file-based system.

 

 

1.2 Traditional File-based System （传统的基于文件系统）

1.2   traditional file-based system（传统的基于文件系统。）

It is almost a traditional that comprehensive database books introduce the database system with a review of its predecessor, the file-based system. We will not depart from this tradition. Although the file-based approach is largely obsolete, there  are good reasons for studying it:

l Understanding the problems inherent in file-based systems may prevent us from repeating these problems in database systems. In other words, we should learn from our earlier mistakes. Actually, using the word “mistake” is derogatory and does not give any cognizance to the work that served a useful purpose for many years. However, we have learned from this book that there are better ways to handle data.

l If you wish to convert a file-based system to a database system, understanding how the file system works will be extremely useful, if not essential.

 

1.2.1  File-based Approach（基于文件的方式）

File-based system   A collection of application programs that perform services for the end-users, such as the production of report. Each program defines and manages its own data.

File-based systems were an early attempt to computerize the manual filing system that we are all familiar with. For example, an organization might have physical files set up to hold all external and internal correspondence relating to a project, product, task, client, or employee. Typical, these are many such files, and for safety they are labeled and stored in one or more cabinets. For security, the cabinets may have locks or may be located in secure areas of the building. In our own home, we probably have some sort of filing system that contains receipts, warranties, invoices, bank statements, and so on. When we need to look something up, we go to the filing system and search through the system, starting at the first entry, until we find what we want. Alternatively, we might have an indexing system that helps locate what we want more quickly. For example, we might have divisions in the filling system or separate folders for different types of items that are in some way logically related.

The manual filling system works well as long as the number of items to be stored is small. It even works adequately when there are large numbers of items and we only have to store and retrieve them. However, the manual filling system breaks down when we have to cross-reference or process the information in the files. For example, a typical real estate agent’s office might have a separate file for each property for sale or rent, each potential buyer and renter, and each member of staff. Consider the effort that would be required to answer the follow questions:

•  What three-bedroom properties do you have for sale with an acre of land and garage?
•  What apartments do you have for rent within three miles of downtown?
•  What is the annuals total for staff salaries?
•   How does last month’s net income compere with the projected figure for this month?
•   What is the expected monthly net income for the next financial year?

 

Increasingly nowadays, clients, senior managers, and staff want more and more information. In some business sectors, there is a legal requirement to produce detailed monthly, quarterly and annual reports.

Clearly, the manual system is inadequate for this type of work. The file-based system was developed in response to the needs of industry for more efficient data access. However, rather than establish a centralized store for the organization’s operational data, a decentralized approach was taken, where each department, with the assistance of Data Processing (DP)staff, stored and controlled its own data. To understand what this means, consider the DreamHome example. 

 

 

The sales Department is responsible for the selling and renting of properties. For example, whenever, a client who wishes to offer his or her property as a rental approaches the sales Department, a form similar to the one shown in Figure 1.1(a) is completed. The completed form contains details on the property, such as address, number of rooms, and the owner’s contact information.  The Sales Department also handles inquiries from clients, and a form similar to the one shown in Figure 1.1(b) is completed for each one. With the assistance of the DP Department, the sales Department creases an information system to handle the renting of property. The system consists of three files containing property, owner, and client details, as illustrated in Figure1.2. For simplicity, we omit details relating to members of staff, branch offices, and business owners.

The Contract Department is responsible for handling the lease agreements associated with properties for rent. Whenever a client agrees to rent a property, a form with the client and property details is filled in by one of the sales staff, as shown in Figure 1.3. The form is passed to the contracts Department, which allocates a lease number and completes the payment and rental period details. Again, with the assistance of the DP Department, the contracts Department creates an information system to handle lease agreements. The system consists three files that store lease property, and client details, and that contain similar data to that held by the Sales Department, as illustrated in Figure 1.4.

The process is illustrated in Figure1.5. It shows each department accessing their own files through application programs written especially for them. Each set of department application programs handles data entry, file maintenance, and the generation of a fixed set of specific reports. More important, the physical structure and storage of the data files and records are defined in the application code.

We can find similar examples in other departments. For example, The Payroll Department stores details relating to each member of staff’s salary:

StaffSalary (staffNo, fName, Iname, sex, salary, branchNO)

工人薪资表（工号、名字、姓氏、性别、薪资、科室编号）

The Human Resources (HR) Department also stores staff details:

人力资 源部也存储员工明细

Staff  (staffNo,fName,IName,position,sex,dateOfBirth,salary,branchNo)

员工（工号、名字、姓氏、职位、姓别、出生日期、薪水、科室编号）

It can be quite clearly that there is a significant amount of duplication of data in these departments, and this is generally true of file-based systems. Before we discuss the limitations of this approach, it may be useful to understand the terminology used in file-based systems. A file is simply a collection of records, which contains logically related data. For example, the PropertyForRent file in Figure 1.2 contains six records, one for each property. Each record contains a logically connected set of one or more fields, where each field represents some characteristic of the real-world object that is being modeled. In Figure 1.2, the fields of the PropertyForRent file represent characteristics of properties, such as address, property type, and number of rooms.

1.2.2 Limitation of the File-based Approach

基于文件方式的局限性。

 This brief description of traditional file-based systems should be sufficient to discuss the limitations of this approach. We list five problems in Table 1.1

传统的基于文件系统的简短描述，应足以讨论这种方式的局限性，在表1.1中，我们列出了5个问题。

Separation and isolation of data

分离和隔离数据

When data is isolated in separate files, it is more difficult to access data that should be available. For example, if we want to produce a list of all houses that match the requirements of clients, we first need to create a temporary file of those clients who have “house” as preferred type. We then search the PropertyForRent file for those properties where the property type is “house” and the rent is less than the client’s maximum rent. With file systems, such processing is difficult. The application developer must synchronize the processing of two files to ensure that the correct data is extracted. This difficulty is compounded if we require data from more than two files.

 当数据在单独文件中隔离时， 更难访问该有用数据。

Duplication of data

Owning to the decentralized approach taken by each department, the file-based approach encouraged, if not necessitated, the ubcontrolled duplication of data. For example, in Figure 1.5 we can clearly see that there is duplication of both property and client details in the Sales and Contracts Departments. Uncontrolled duplication of data is undesirable for several reasons, including:

• Duplication is wasteful. It costs time and money to enter the data more than once.
• It takes up additional storage space, again with associated costs. Often, the duplication of data can be avoided by sharing data files.
• Perhaps more importantly,duplication can lead to less of data integrity; in other words, the data is no longer consistent. For example, consider the duplication of data between the payroll and HR Departments described previously. If a member of staff moves and the change of address is communicated only to HR and not to Payroll, the person\'s paycheck will be sent to the wrong address. A  more serious problem occurs if an employee is promoted with an associated increase in salary. Again, let\'s assume that the change is announced to HR, but the change does not filter through to payroll. Now, the employee is receiving the wrong salary. When this error is detected, it will take time and effort to resolve. Both these examples illustrate inconsistencies that may result from duplication of data. As there is no automatic way for HR to update the data in the Payroll files, it is not difficult to foresee such inconsistencies arising. Even if payroll is notified of the changes, It is possible that the data will be entered incorrectly.

 

Data dependence

As we have already mentionded, the physical structure and storage of the data files and records are defined in the application code. This means that changes to an existing structure are difficult to make. For example, increasing the size of the PropertyForRent address from 40 to 41 characters sounds like a simple change, but it requires the creation of a one-off program (that is, a program that is run only once and can thene be discarded) that converts the PropertyForRent file to the new format. This program has to: 

• Open the original PropertyForRent file for reading
• Open a temporary file with the new structure
• Read a record from the original file, convert the data to conform to the new structure, and write it to the temporary file, then repeat this step for all records in the original file
• Delete the original PropertyForRent file
• Rename the temporary file as a propertyForRent 

In addition, all programs that access the PropertyForRent file must be modified to conform to the new file structure. There might be many such programs that access the PropertyForRent  file. Thus, the programmer needs to identify all the affected programs, modify them, and then retest them. Note that a program does not even have to use the address field to be affected: it only has to use the PropertyForRent file. Clearly, this process could be very time-consuming and subject to error. This characteristic of file-based systems is known as program-data-dependence. 

Incompatible file formats

Because the structure of files is embedded in the application programs, the structures are dependent on the application programming  language. For example, the structure of a file generated by a COBOL program may be different from the structure a file generated by a C program. The direct incompatibility of such files makes them difficult to process jointly.

　　For example, supose that the Contracts Department wants to find the names and addresses of all owners whose property is currently rented out. Unfortunatedly, Contracts does not hold the details of property owners; only the Slaes Department holds these. However Contracts has the property number(propertyNo), which can be used to find the corresponding property number in the Sales Department\'s PropertyForRent file. This file holds the owner number(ownerNo), which can be used to find the owner details in the PrivateOwner file. The Contracts Department programs in COBOL and the sales Department programs in C. Therefore, matching propertyNo fields in the two PropertyForRent files requires that an application developer write software to convert the files to some common format to facilitate processing. Again, this process can be time-consuming  and expensive. 

Fixed queries/proliferation of application programs

From the end-user\'s point of view, file-based systems were a great improvement over manual systems. Consequently, the requirement for new or modified queries grew. However, file-based systems are very dependent upon tha application developer, who has to write any queries or reports that are required. As a dependent upon the application  developer, who has to write any queries or reports that are required. As a result, two things happened. In some organizations, the type of query or report that could be report that could be produced was fixed. There was no facility for asking unplanned (that is, spur-of-the-moment or ad hoc) queries either about the data itself or about which types of data were availabe. 

　　In other organizations, there was a proliferation of files and aplication programs. Eventually, this reached a point where DP Department, with its existingresoures, could not handle all the work. This put tremendous pressure on the DP staff, resultingin programs that were inadequate or inefficient in meeting the demands of the users, limited documentation, and difficult maintenance. Often, certain types of functionality were omited:

• There was no provision for security or integrity.
• Recovery, in the event of a hardware or software failure, was limited or nonexistent.
• Access to the files was restricted to one user at a time--- there was no provision for shared access by staff in the same department.

In either case, the outcome was unacceptable. Another solution was required. 

1.3 Database Approch 

All of the previously mentioned limitations of the file-based approach can be attributed to the factors:

1. The definition of the data is embedded in the application  programs, rather than being stored separately and independently.
2. There is no control over the access and manipulation of data beyond that imposed by the application programs.

To become some effective, a new approach was required. What emerged were the database and the Database Mangement System (DBMS). In this section, we provide a more formal definition of these terms, and examine the components that we might expect in a DBMS environment. 

1.3.1 The Database

Database　　　　A shared colletion of logically related data and its description, designed to meet the information needs of an arganization. 

We now examine the definition of a database so that you can understand the concept fully. The database is a single, possibly large repository of data that can be used simulatancely by many departments and users. Instead of disconnected files with redunant data, all data items are integrated with a minimum amount of duplication. The database is no longer owned by one department but is a shared corporate resource. The database holds not only the organizaton\'s operational data, but also a description of this data. For this reason, a database is also defined as a self-describing collection of integrated records. The description of the data is known as the system catalog (or data dictionary or metadata--the "data about data"). It is the self-describing nature of a database that provides program-data independence.

　　The approach taken with database systems, where the definition of data is separated from the application programs is similar to the approach taken in modern software development, where an internal definition of an object and a separate external definition are provided. The users of an object see only the external definition and are unaware of how the object is defined and how it functions. One advantage of this approach, known as data abstraction, is that we can change the internal definition of an object without effecting the users of the object, provided that the external definitionremains the same. In the same way, the database approach separates the structure of the data from the application programs and stores  it in database. If new data structures are added or existing structures are modified, then the application programs are unaffected, provided that they do not driectly depend upon what has been modified. For example, if we remove a field from a file that an application program uses, then that application program is affected by this change and must be modified accordingly. 

　　Another expression in the definition of a database that we should explain is "logically related". When we analyze the information needs of an organization, we attempt to identify entities,attributes, and relationships. An entity is distinct object (a person, place, thing, concept, or event) in the organization that is to be represented in the database. An attribute is a property that describes some aspect of the object that we wish to record, and a relationship is an association between entities. For example, Figure 1.6 shows an Entity-relationship(ER) diagram for part of the DreamHome case study. It consists of:

• six entities (the rectanges): Branch, staff, PropertyForRent, Client, PrivateOwner, and Lease; 
• seven relationships (the names adjacent to the lines): Has, Offers,Oversees, Views, Owns, Leasedby, and Holds;

six attributed, one for each entity: branchNo, staffNo, propertyNo, clientNo, ownerNo, and leaseNo.

The database represents the entities, the attributes, and the logical relationships between the entities. In other words, the database holds data that is logically related. we discuss the ER model in detail in Chapters 12  and 13.

1.3.2 The Database Management System (DBMS)

DBMS 　　A software system that enables users to define, create, maintain, and control access to the database.The DBMS is the software that interacts with the users\' application programs and the database. Typically, a DBMS provides the following facilities:

• It allows users to define the database, usually through a Data Definition Language (DDL). The DDL allows user to specify the data types and structures and the constraints on the data to be stored in the database. 
• It allows users to insert, update, delete, and retrieve data from the database, usually through a Data Manipulation Language (DML). Having a central repository for all data and data descriptions allows the DML to provide a general inquiry facility to this data, called a query language. The provision of a query language alleviates the problems with file-based systems where the user has to work with a fixed set of queries or there is a proliferation of programs, causing major software management problems. The most common query language is the Structured Query Language (SQL, pronounced "S-Q-L", or sometimes "See-Quel"), which is now both the formal and de facto standard language for relational DBMSs. To emphasize the importance of SQL, we devote Chapter6, 7, 8, most of Chapter 29, and Appendix  Ⅰ to a comprehensive study of this language .
• It provides controlled access to the database. For example, it may provide:

1. 　　a security system, which prevents unauthorized users accessing the database; 
2. 　　an integrity system, which maintains the consistency of stored data; 
3. 　　a concurrency control system, which allows shared access of the database; 
4. 　　a recovery control system, which restores the database to a previous consistent state following a hardware or software failure; 
5. 　　a user-accessible catalog, which contains descriptions of the data in the database. 

 

1.3.3  (Database) Application Programs 

 

Application Programs　　A computer program that interacts with the database by issuing an appropriate request (typically an SQL statement) to the DBMS.

 Users interact with the datrabase through a number of application programs that are used to create and maintain the database and to generate information. These programs can be conventional batch application or , more typically nowdays onlines applications. The application programs may be written in a programming language or in higher-level fourth-generation language. 

　　The database approach is illustrated in Figure 1.7, based on the file approach of Figure1.5. It shows the Sales and Contract Departments using their application programs to access the database through the DBMS. Each set of departmental application programs handles data entry, data  maintenance, the generation of reports. However, as opposed to the file-based approach, the physical structure and storage of the data are now managed by the DBMS. 

 

Views

 With this functionality, the DBMS is an extremely powerful and useful tool. However, as the end-users are not too interested in how complex or easy a task is for the system, it could be argued that the DBMS has  made things more complex, because they now see  more data than they  actually need or want. For example, the details that the Contracts Department wants to see for a rental property , as shown in Figure 1.5, have changed in the database approach , shown in Figure 1.7. Now the database also holds the property type, the number of rooms, and the owner details, in recognition of this problem, a DBMS provides another facility known as a view mechanism, which allows each user to have his or her view of the database (a view is, in essence, some subset of the database). For example, we could set up a view that allow the Contracts Department to see only the data that they want to see for rental properties. 

　　As  well as reducing complexity by letting users see the data in the way they want to see it, views have several other benefits:

• Views provide a level of security. Views can be set up to exclude data that some users should not see. For example, we could create a view that allows a branch manager and the Payroll Department to see  all staff data, including salary details, and we could create a second view that other staff would use that exclude salary details.
• Views provide a mechanism to customize the appearance of the database. For example, the Contracts Department may wish to call the monthly rent field (rent) by the more obvious name, Monthly Rent.
• A view can present a consistent, unchanging picture of the structure of the database, even if the underlying database is changed (For example, fields added or removed, relationships changed, files split, restructured, or renamed). If fields are added or removed from a file, and these fields are not required by the view, the view is not affected by this change. Thus, a view helps provide the program--data independence we mentioned previously.

The previous discussion is general and the actual level of functionality offered by a DBMS differs from product to product. For example, a DBMS for a personal computer may not support concurrent shared accerss, and may provide only limited security, integrity, and recovery control. However, modern, large multi-user DBMS products offer all the the functions mentioned and much more. Modern systems are extremely complex pieces of software consisting of millions of lines of code, with documentation comprising many volumes. This complexity is a result of having to provide software that handles requirements of a more general nature. Furthermore, the use of DBMSs nowadays requires a system that provides almost total reliability and 24/7 availability (24 hours a day, 7 days a week), even in the presence of hardware or software failure. The DBMS is continually evolving and expanding to cope with new user requirements. For example, some application now require the storage of graphic images, video, sound, and so on. To reach this market, the DBMS must change. It is likely that new functionality will always be required, so the functionality of the DBMS will never become static. We discuss the basic functions provided by a DBMS in later chapter. 

1.3.4  Components of the DBMS Environment

We can identify five major components in DBMS enviroment: hardware, software, data, procedures, and people, as illustrated in Figure 1.8 

Hardware

The DBMS and the applications require hardware to run. The hardware can range from a single personal computer to a single mainframe or a network of computers. The particular hardware depends on the organization\'s requirements and the DBMS used. Some DBMSs run only on particular hardware or operating systems, while others run on a wide variety of hardware and operating systems. A  DBMS requires a minimum amount of main memory and disk space to run , but this minimum configuration may not  necessarily give acceptable performance. A simiplified hardware configuration for DreamHome is illustrated in Figure 1.9.  It consists of  a network of small servers, with a central server located in London running the backend of the DBMS, that is, the part of the DBMS that manages and controls access to the database. It also shows several interfaces with the user. This is called a client-server architecture: the backend is the server and the frontends are the clients. We discuss this type of architecture in section 3.1 

 Software

The software component comprises the DBMS software itself and the application programs, together with the operating system, including network software if the DBMS is being used over a network. Typically, application programs are written in a third-generation programming language (3GL), such as C, C++, C#, Java, Visual Basic, COBOL, Fortan, Ada, or Pascal, or a fourth-generation Language(4GL), such as SQL, allow rapid development of applications through the provision of non-procedural query languages, reports generators, forms generators, graphics generators, and application generators. The use of fourth-generation tool can improve productivity significantly and produce programs that are easier to maintain. We discuss fourth-generation tools in Section2.2.3.

Data

Perhaps the most important component of the DBMS environment--certainly from the end-users\' point of view--is the data . In Figure 1.8, we observe that the data acts as a bridge between the machine components and the human components. The database contains both the operational data and the metadata, the "data about data." The structure of the database is called the schema. In Figure1.7, the schema consists of four files, or tables, namely: PropertyForRent, PrivateOwner, Client, and Lease. The PropertyForRent table has eight fields, or attrbutes, namely: propertyNo, street, city, zipCode, type(the property type), rooms(the number of rooms), rent (the monthly rent), and ownerNo. The ownerNo attribute models the relationship between PropertyForRent and PrivateOwner: that is, an owner owns a property for rent, as depicted in the ER diagram of Figure 1.6. For example, in Figure1.2 we observe that owner CO46, Joe Keogh, owns propertyPA14.

The data also incorporates the system catalog, which we discuss in detail in Section 2.4.

Procedures

Procedres refer to the instructions and rules that goven the design and use of the database. The users of the system and the staff who manage the database require documented procedures on how to use or run the system. These may consist of instructions on how to:

• Log on to the DBMS.
• Use a particular DBMS facility or application program.
• Start and stop the DBMS
• Make backup copies of the database.
• Handle hardware or software failures. This may include procesdures on how to identify the failed component, how to fix the failed component(for example, telephone the approprivate hardware engineer), and, following the repair of the fault, how to recover the database.
• Change the structure of a table, recognize the database across multiple disks, improve performance. or archive data to sencondary storage.

People 

The final component is the people involved with the system. We discuss this component in Section 1.4 .

 

1.3.5 Database Design: the Paradigm Shift 

Until now, we have taken it for granted that there is a structure to the data in the database. For example, we have identified four table in Figure 1.7 : PropertyFroRent ,PrivateOwner, Client, and Lease. But how did we get this structure?This answer is quite simple: the structure of the database is determined during database design. However, carrying out database design can be extremely complex. To produce a system that will satisfy the organization\'s information needs requires a different approach from that of file-based systems, where the work was driven by the application needs of individual departments. For the database approach to succeed, the organization now has to think of the data first and the application second.  This change in approach is sometimes referred to as a paradigm shift. For the system to be acceptable to the end-users, the database design activity is crucial.  A poorly designed database will generate errors that may led to bad decisions, which may have serious repercussions for the organization. On the other hand, a well-designed database produces a system that provides the correct information for the decision-making process to succeed in an efficient way. 

　　The objective of this book is to help effect this paradigm shift. We devote several chapters to the presentation of a complete methodology  for database design(see Chapter 16-19). It is presented as a series of simple-to -follow steps, with guidelines provided throughout. For example, in the ER diagram of Figure 1.6, we have identified six entities, seven relationships, and six attributes. We provide guidelines to help identify the entities, attrbutes, and relationships that have to be represented in the database. 

　　Unfortunately, database design methodologies are very popular. Many organizations and individual designers rely little on methodologies for conducting the design of database, and this is commonly considered a major cause of failure in the development of database systems. Owing the lack of structured approaches to database design, the time or resources required for a database project are typically underestimated, the database developed are inadequate or inefficient in meeting the demands of applications, documentation is limited, and maintainances is difficult. 

 

1.4  Roles in Database Environment

 

　　In this section, we examine what we listed in the previous section as the fifth component of the DBMS environment: the people. We can identify four distinct types of people who participate in the DBMS environment: data and database administrators, database designers, application developers, and end-users. 

1.4.1 Data and Database Administrators

The database and the DBMS are corporate resources that must be managed like any other resource. Data and database administration are the roles generally associated with the management and control a DBMS and its data. The Data Administrator (DA) is responsible for the management of the data resource, including database planning; development and maintenance of standards, policies and procedures; and conceptual / logical database design. The DA consults with and advises senior managers, ensuring that the direction of database development will ultimately support corporate objectives.

　　The Database Administrator (DBA) is reponsible for the physical realization of the database, including physical database design and implementation, security and implementation, security and integrity control, maintenance of the operational system, and ensuring satisfactory performance of the applications for users. The role of the DBA is more techniclly oriented than the role of the DA, requiring detailed knowledge of the target DBMS and the system environment. In some organizations there is no distinction between these two roles: in others, the importance of the corporate resources is reflected in the allocation of teams of staff dedicated to each of these roles. We discuss data and database administration in more detail in section 20.15.

 1.4.2 Database Designers 

In large database design projects, we can distinguish between two types of designer: logical database designers and physical database designers. The logical database designer is concerned with identifying the data (that is , the entities and attributes), the relationships between the data, and the constraints on the data that is to be stored in the database. The logical database designer must have a thorough and complete understanding  of the organization\'s data and any constraints on this data (the constraints are sometimes called business rules). These constraints describe the main characteristics of the data as viewed by the organization. Examples of constraints for DreamHome are:

•  a member of staff cannot manage more than 100properties for rent or sale at the same time. 
• a member of staff cannot handle the sale or rent of his or her own property; 
• a solicitor cannot act for both the buyer and seller of a property.

To be effective, the logical database designer must involve all prospective database users in the development of the data model, and this involvement should begin as early in the process as possible. In this book, we split the work of the logical database designer into two stages: 

• conceptual database desing, which is independent of implementation details, such as the target DBMS, application programs, programming languages, or any other physical considerations; 
• logical database design, which targets a specific data model, such as relational, network, hierarchical, or object-oriented. 

　　The physical database designer decides how the logical database design is to be physically realized. This involves:

• mapping the logical database design into a set of tables and integrity constraints;
• selecting specific storage structures and access methods for the data to achieve good performance; 
• designing any security measures required on the data.

Many parts of physical database are highly dependent on the target DBMS, and there may be more than one way of implementing a mechanism. Consequently, the physical database designer must be fully aware of the functionality of the target DBMS and must understand the advantage and disadvantages of each alternative implementation. The physical database designer must be capable of selecting a suitable storage strategy that takes accounts of usage. Whereas conceptual and logical database design are concerned with the what, physical database design is concerned with the how. It requires different skills, which are often found in different people. We present a methodology for conceptual database design in Chapter 16, for logical database design in Chapter 17, and for physical database design in Chapter 18 and 19.

1.4.3 Application Developers

Once the database has been implemented, the application programs that provide the required functionality for the end-users must be implemented. This is the responsibility of the application developers. Typically, the application developers work from a specification produced by the systems analysts. Each program contains statements that request the DBMS to perform some operation on the database, which includes retrieving data, inserting, updating, and deleting data. The programs may be written in a third-generation or fourth-generation programming language, as discussed previously.

1.4.4 End-users

The end-users are the "clients" of the DBMS, which has been designed and implemented and is being maintained to serve their information needs. End-users can be classified according to the way they use the system:

 

• Navie user are typically unaware of the DBMS.They access the database through specially written application  programs that attempt to make the operations as simple as possible. They invoke database operation by entering simple commands or choosing options from a menu. This means that they do not need to know anything about the database or the DBMS. For  example, the checkout assistant at the local supermarket uses a bar code reader to find out  the price of the item. However, there is an application program present that reads the bar code, looks up the price of the item in the database, reduces the database field containing the number of such items in stock, and dsiplays the price on the till.
• Sophisticated users.   At the other end of the spectrum, the sophisticated end-users is familiar with the structure of the database and facilities offered by the DBMS. Sophisticated end-users may use  high-level query language such as SQL to perform the required operations. Some sophisiticated end-users may even write application programs for their own use. 

1.5 History of Database Management Systems （数据库系统历史）

We  have already seen that  the prodessor to the DBMS was the file-based system. However, there was never a time when the database approach began and the file-based system ceased. In fact, the file-based system still exists in specific areas. It has been suggested that the DBMS has its roots in the 1960s Apollo moon-landing project, which was initiated in response to President Kennedy\'s objective of landing a man on the moon by the end of that decade. At that time, there was no system avaiable  that would be able to handle and manage the vast amounts of information that the project would generate. 

　　As a result, North American Aviation (NAA, now Rockwell International), the prime contractor for the project, developed software known as GUAM(for Generalized Update Access Method). GUAM was based on the concept that smaller components come together as parts of larger components, and so on, until the final product is assembled. This structure, which conforms to an upside-down tree, is also know as  hierarchical structure. In the mid-1960s, IBM joined NAA to develop GUAM into what is now known as IMS (for Information Management System). The reason that IBM  restricted IMS to the management of hierarchies of records was to allow the use of serial storage devices; most notably magnetic tape, which was a market requirement at that time. This restriction was subsequently dropped. Although one of the earliest  commercial DBMSs， IMS is still the main hierarchical DBMS used by the most large mainframe installations. 

　　In  the mid-1960s, another significant development was the emergence of IDS (or Integrated Data Store) from General Electric. This work was headed by one of the early pioneers of database systems, Charles Bachmann. This development led to a new type of  database system known as the network DBMS, which had a profound effect on the information systems of that generation. The network database was developed partly to address the need to represent more complex  data relationships than could be modeled with hierarchical structures, and partly to impose a database standard. To help establish such standards, the Conference  on Data Systems Language (CODASYL), comprising representatives of the U.S. government and the world of business and commerce, formed  a List  Processing Task Force in 1965, subsequently renamed the Data Base Task Group (DBTG) in 1967. The terms of reference for the DBTG were to define standard specifications for an environment that would allow database creation and data manipulation. A draft report was issued in 1969, and the first definitive report was issued in 1971. The DBTG proposal identified three components:

• the network schema--the logical organization of the entire database as seen by the DBA --which includes a definition of the database name, the type of each record, and the components of each record types; 
• the subschema---the part of the database as seen by the user or application program;
• a data management language to define the data characteristics and the data structure, and to manipulate the data.

　　For standardization, the DBTG specified three distinct languages:

• a schemal DDL, which enables the DBA to define the schema;
• a subschema DDL,  which allows the application programs to define the parts of the database they requie; 
• a DML,  to  manipulate the data.

　　Although the report was not formally adopted by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), a number of systems were subsequently developed following the DBTG proposal. These systems are now known as CODASYL or DBTG systems. The CODASYL and hierarchical approaches represented the first generation of DBMSs. We look more closely at these systems on the Web site for this book (see the preface for the URL). However, these two models have some fundamental disadvantages:

• complex programs have to be written to answer even simple queries based on navigational record-oriented access;
• there is minimal data independence;
• there is no widely accepted theoretical foundation.

In 1970, E.F. Codd of the IBM Research Laboratory produced his highly influential paper on the relational data model ("A relational model of data for large  shared data banks."Codd 1970). This paper was very timely and addressed the disadvantages of the former approaches. Many experimental relational DBMSs were implemented thereafter, with the first commercial products appearing in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Of particular note is the System R project at IBM\'s San Joes Research Laboratory in California, which was developed during the late 1970s(Astrahan et al., 1976). This project was designed to prove the practicality of the relational model by providing an implementation of its data structures and operations, and led to two major developments:

• the development of a structured query language called SQL, which has since become the standard language for relational DBMSs; 
• the production of various commerical relational DBMS products during the 1980s, for example DB2 and SQL/DS from IBM and Oracle from Oracle Corporation.

Now there are several hundred relational DBMSs for both mainframe and PC environments, though many are streching the definition of the relation model. Other example of multi-user relational DBMSs are mysql from MySQL AB, Ingres from Ingres Corporation, SQL Server from Microsoft, and Informix from IBM. Examples of PC-based relational DBMSs are office Access and Visual FoxPro from Microsoft, Interbase from CodeGear, and R:Base from R:Base Technologies. Relational DBMSs are referred to as second-generation DBMSs. We discuss the relational data model in Chapter 4.

　　The relational  model is not without its failings; in particular, its limited modeling capabilities. There has been much research since then attempting to address this problem. In 1976, Chen presented the Entity-Relationship model, which is now a widely accepted technique for database design and the basis for the methodology presented in Chapter 16 and 17 this book. In  1979, Codd himself attempted to address some of the failings in his original work with an exteded version of the relational model called RM/T (1979) and subsequently RM/V2 (1990). The attempts to provide a data model that represents the "real world" more closely have been loosely classified as semantic data modeliong. 

　　In reponse to the increasing complexity of database applications, two "new" systems have emerged: the objected-oriented DBMS(

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