Tornado
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概述
Tornado 是 FriendFeed 使用的可扩展的非阻塞式 web 服务器及其相关工具的开源版本。这个 Web 框架看起来有些像web.py 或者 Google 的 webapp,不过为了能有效利用非阻塞式服务器环境,这个 Web 框架还包含了一些相关的有用工具 和优化。
Tornado 和现在的主流 Web 服务器框架(包括大多数 Python 的框架)有着明显的区别:它是非阻塞式服务器,而且速度相当快。得利于其 非阻塞的方式和对 epoll 的运用,Tornado 每秒可以处理数以千计的连接,这意味着对于实时 Web 服务来说,Tornado 是一个理想的 Web 框架。我们开发这个 Web 服务器的主要目的就是为了处理 FriendFeed 的实时功能 ——在 FriendFeed 的应用里每一个活动用户都会保持着一个服务器连接。(关于如何扩容 服务器,以处理数以千计的客户端的连接的问题,请参阅 C10K problem。)
下载安装:
pip3 install tornado 源码安装 https://pypi.python.org/packages/source/t/tornado/tornado-4.3.tar.gz
框架使用
1 #!/usr/bin/env python 2 # -*- coding:utf-8 -*- 3 4 import tornado.ioloop 5 import tornado.web 6 7 8 class MainHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler): 9 def get(self): 10 self.write("Hello, world") 11 12 application = tornado.web.Application([ 13 (r"/index", MainHandler), 14 ]) 15 16 17 if __name__ == "__main__": 18 application.listen(8888) 19 tornado.ioloop.IOLoop.instance().start()
执行过程:
- 第一步:执行脚本,监听 8888 端口
- 第二步:浏览器客户端
访问 /index --> http://127.0.0.1:8888/index - 第三步:服务器接受请求,并交由对应的类处理该请求
- 第四步:类接受到请求之后,根据请求方式(post / get / delete ...)的不同调用并执行相应的方法
- 第五步:方法返回值的字符串内容发送浏览器
1 #!/usr/bin/env python 2 # -*- coding:utf-8 -*- 3 #!/usr/bin/env python 4 # -*- coding:utf-8 -*- 5 6 import tornado.ioloop 7 import tornado.web 8 from tornado import httpclient 9 from tornado.web import asynchronous 10 from tornado import gen 11 12 import uimodules as md 13 import uimethods as mt 14 15 class MainHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler): 16 @asynchronous 17 @gen.coroutine 18 def get(self): 19 print ‘start get ‘ 20 http = httpclient.AsyncHTTPClient() 21 http.fetch("http://127.0.0.1:8008/post/", self.callback) 22 self.write(‘end‘) 23 24 def callback(self, response): 25 print response.body 26 27 settings = { 28 ‘template_path‘: ‘template‘, 29 ‘static_path‘: ‘static‘, 30 ‘static_url_prefix‘: ‘/static/‘, 31 ‘ui_methods‘: mt, 32 ‘ui_modules‘: md, 33 } 34 35 application = tornado.web.Application([ 36 (r"/index", MainHandler), 37 ], **settings) 38 39 40 if __name__ == "__main__": 41 application.listen(8009) 42 tornado.ioloop.IOLoop.instance().start()
二、路由系统
路由系统其实就是 url 和 类 的对应关系,这里不同于其他框架,其他很多框架均是 url 对应 函数,Tornado中每个url对应的是一个类。
#!/usr/bin/env python # -*- coding:utf-8 -*- import tornado.ioloop import tornado.web class MainHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler): def get(self): self.write("Hello, world") class StoryHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler): def get(self, story_id): self.write("You requested the story " + story_id) class BuyHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler): def get(self): self.write("buy.wupeiqi.com/index") application = tornado.web.Application([ (r"/index", MainHandler), (r"/story/([0-9]+)", StoryHandler), ]) application.add_handlers(‘buy.wupeiqi.com$‘, [ (r‘/index‘,BuyHandler), ]) if __name__ == "__main__": application.listen(80) tornado.ioloop.IOLoop.instance().start()
Tornado中原生支持二级域名的路由,如:
三、模板引擎
Tornao中的模板语言和django中类似,模板引擎将模板文件载入内存,然后将数据嵌入其中,最终获取到一个完整的字符串,再将字符串返回给请求者。
Tornado 的模板支持“控制语句”和“表达语句”,控制语句是使用 {%
和 %}
包起来的 例如 {% if len(items) > 2 %}
。表达语句是使用 {{
和 }}
包起来的,例如 {{ items[0] }}
。
控制语句和对应的 Python 语句的格式基本完全相同。我们支持 if
、for
、while
和 try
,这些语句逻辑结束的位置需要用 {% end %}
做标记。还通过 extends
和 block
语句实现了模板继承。这些在 template
模块 的代码文档中有着详细的描述。
注:在使用模板前需要在setting中设置模板路径:"template_path" : "tpl"
1、基本使用
1 #!/usr/bin/env python 2 # -*- coding:utf-8 -*- 3 4 import tornado.ioloop 5 import tornado.web 6 7 8 class MainHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler): 9 def get(self): 10 self.render("index.html", list_info = [11,22,33]) 11 12 application = tornado.web.Application([ 13 (r"/index", MainHandler), 14 ]) 15 16 17 if __name__ == "__main__": 18 application.listen(8888) 19 tornado.ioloop.IOLoop.instance().start()
1 <!DOCTYPE html> 2 <html> 3 <head> 4 <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"/> 5 <title>老男孩</title> 6 <link href="{{static_url("css/common.css")}}" rel="stylesheet" /> 7 </head> 8 <body> 9 10 <div> 11 <ul> 12 {% for item in list_info %} 13 <li>{{item}}</li> 14 {% end %} 15 </ul> 16 </div> 17 18 <script src="{{static_url("js/jquery-1.8.2.min.js")}}"></script> 19 20 </body> 21 </html>
1 在模板中默认提供了一些函数、字段、类以供模板使用: 2 3 escape: tornado.escape.xhtml_escape 的別名 4 xhtml_escape: tornado.escape.xhtml_escape 的別名 5 url_escape: tornado.escape.url_escape 的別名 6 json_encode: tornado.escape.json_encode 的別名 7 squeeze: tornado.escape.squeeze 的別名 8 linkify: tornado.escape.linkify 的別名 9 datetime: Python 的 datetime 模组 10 handler: 当前的 RequestHandler 对象 11 request: handler.request 的別名 12 current_user: handler.current_user 的別名 13 locale: handler.locale 的別名 14 _: handler.locale.translate 的別名 15 static_url: for handler.static_url 的別名 16 xsrf_form_html: handler.xsrf_form_html 的別名
2、母版
1 <!DOCTYPE html> 2 <html> 3 <head> 4 <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"/> 5 <title>老男孩</title> 6 <link href="{{static_url("css/common.css")}}" rel="stylesheet" /> 7 {% block CSS %}{% end %} 8 </head> 9 <body> 10 11 <div class="pg-header"> 12 13 </div> 14 15 {% block RenderBody %}{% end %} 16 17 <script src="{{static_url("js/jquery-1.8.2.min.js")}}"></script> 18 19 {% block javascript %}{% end %} 20 </body> 21 </html>
1 {% extends ‘layout.html‘%} 2 {% block CSS %} 3 <link href="{{static_url("css/index.css")}}" rel="stylesheet" /> 4 {% end %} 5 6 {% block RenderBody %} 7 <h1>Index</h1> 8 9 <ul> 10 {% for item in li %} 11 <li>{{item}}</li> 12 {% end %} 13 </ul> 14 15 {% end %} 16 17 {% block JavaScript %} 18 19 {% end %}
3、导入
1 <div> 2 <ul> 3 <li>1024</li> 4 <li>42区</li> 5 </ul> 6 </div>
1 <!DOCTYPE html> 2 <html> 3 <head> 4 <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"/> 5 <title>老男孩</title> 6 <link href="{{static_url("css/common.css")}}" rel="stylesheet" /> 7 </head> 8 <body> 9 10 <div class="pg-header"> 11 {% include ‘header.html‘ %} 12 </div> 13 14 <script src="{{static_url("js/jquery-1.8.2.min.js")}}"></script> 15 16 </body> 17 </html>
4、自定义UIMethod以UIModule
a. 定义
1 # uimethods.py 2 3 def tab(self): 4 return ‘UIMethod‘
1 #!/usr/bin/env python 2 # -*- coding:utf-8 -*- 3 from tornado.web import UIModule 4 from tornado import escape 5 6 class custom(UIModule): 7 8 def render(self, *args, **kwargs): 9 return escape.xhtml_escape(‘<h1>wupeiqi</h1>‘) 10 #return escape.xhtml_escape(‘<h1>wupeiqi</h1>‘)
b. 注册
1 #!/usr/bin/env python 2 # -*- coding:utf-8 -*- 3 #!/usr/bin/env python 4 # -*- coding:utf-8 -*- 5 6 import tornado.ioloop 7 import tornado.web 8 from tornado.escape import linkify 9 import uimodules as md 10 import uimethods as mt 11 12 class MainHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler): 13 def get(self): 14 self.render(‘index.html‘) 15 16 settings = { 17 ‘template_path‘: ‘template‘, 18 ‘static_path‘: ‘static‘, 19 ‘static_url_prefix‘: ‘/static/‘, 20 ‘ui_methods‘: mt, 21 ‘ui_modules‘: md, 22 } 23 24 application = tornado.web.Application([ 25 (r"/index", MainHandler), 26 ], **settings) 27 28 29 if __name__ == "__main__": 30 application.listen(8009) 31 tornado.ioloop.IOLoop.instance().start()
c. 使用
<!DOCTYPE html> <html> <head lang="en"> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title></title> <link href="{{static_url("commons.css")}}" rel="stylesheet" /> </head> <body> <h1>hello</h1> {% module custom(123) %} {{ tab() }} </body>
四、静态文件
对于静态文件,可以配置静态文件的目录和前段使用时的前缀,并且Tornaodo还支持静态文件缓存。
1 #!/usr/bin/env python 2 # -*- coding:utf-8 -*- 3 4 import tornado.ioloop 5 import tornado.web 6 7 8 class MainHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler): 9 def get(self): 10 self.render(‘home/index.html‘) 11 12 settings = { 13 ‘template_path‘: ‘template‘, 14 ‘static_path‘: ‘static‘, 15 ‘static_url_prefix‘: ‘/static/‘, 16 } 17 18 application = tornado.web.Application([ 19 (r"/index", MainHandler), 20 ], **settings) 21 22 23 if __name__ == "__main__": 24 application.listen(80) 25 tornado.ioloop.IOLoop.instance().start()
1 <!DOCTYPE html> 2 <html> 3 <head lang="en"> 4 <meta charset="UTF-8"> 5 <title></title> 6 <link href="{{static_url("commons.css")}}" rel="stylesheet" /> 7 </head> 8 <body> 9 <h1>hello</h1> 10 </body> 11 </html>
注:静态文件缓存的实现
1 def get_content_version(cls, abspath): 2 """Returns a version string for the resource at the given path. 3 4 This class method may be overridden by subclasses. The 5 default implementation is a hash of the file‘s contents. 6 7 .. versionadded:: 3.1 8 """ 9 data = cls.get_content(abspath) 10 hasher = hashlib.md5() 11 if isinstance(data, bytes): 12 hasher.update(data) 13 else: 14 for chunk in data: 15 hasher.update(chunk) 16 return hasher.hexdigest()
五、cookie
Tornado中可以对cookie进行操作,并且还可以对cookie进行签名以放置伪造。
1、基本操作
1 class MainHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler): 2 def get(self): 3 if not self.get_cookie("mycookie"): 4 self.set_cookie("mycookie", "myvalue") 5 self.write("Your cookie was not set yet!") 6 else: 7 self.write("Your cookie was set!")
2、加密cookie(签名)
Cookie 很容易被恶意的客户端伪造。加入你想在 cookie 中保存当前登陆用户的 id 之类的信息,你需要对 cookie 作签名以防止伪造。Tornado 通过 set_secure_cookie 和 get_secure_cookie 方法直接支持了这种功能。 要使用这些方法,你需要在创建应用时提供一个密钥,名字为 cookie_secret。 你可以把它作为一个关键词参数传入应用的设置中:
1 def _create_signature_v1(secret, *parts): 2 hash = hmac.new(utf8(secret), digestmod=hashlib.sha1) 3 for part in parts: 4 hash.update(utf8(part)) 5 return utf8(hash.hexdigest()) 6 7 # 加密 8 def _create_signature_v2(secret, s): 9 hash = hmac.new(utf8(secret), digestmod=hashlib.sha256) 10 hash.update(utf8(s)) 11 return utf8(hash.hexdigest()) 12 13 def create_signed_value(secret, name, value, version=None, clock=None, 14 key_version=None): 15 if version is None: 16 version = DEFAULT_SIGNED_VALUE_VERSION 17 if clock is None: 18 clock = time.time 19 20 timestamp = utf8(str(int(clock()))) 21 value = base64.b64encode(utf8(value)) 22 if version == 1: 23 signature = _create_signature_v1(secret, name, value, timestamp) 24 value = b"|".join([value, timestamp, signature]) 25 return value 26 elif version == 2: 27 # The v2 format consists of a version number and a series of 28 # length-prefixed fields "%d:%s", the last of which is a 29 # signature, all separated by pipes. All numbers are in 30 # decimal format with no leading zeros. The signature is an 31 # HMAC-SHA256 of the whole string up to that point, including 32 # the final pipe. 33 # 34 # The fields are: 35 # - format version (i.e. 2; no length prefix) 36 # - key version (integer, default is 0) 37 # - timestamp (integer seconds since epoch) 38 # - name (not encoded; assumed to be ~alphanumeric) 39 # - value (base64-encoded) 40 # - signature (hex-encoded; no length prefix) 41 def format_field(s): 42 return utf8("%d:" % len(s)) + utf8(s) 43 to_sign = b"|".join([ 44 b"2", 45 format_field(str(key_version or 0)), 46 format_field(timestamp), 47 format_field(name), 48 format_field(value), 49 b‘‘]) 50 51 if isinstance(secret, dict): 52 assert key_version is not None, ‘Key version must be set when sign key dict is used‘ 53 assert version >= 2, ‘Version must be at least 2 for key version support‘ 54 secret = secret[key_version] 55 56 signature = _create_signature_v2(secret, to_sign) 57 return to_sign + signature 58 else: 59 raise ValueError("Unsupported version %d" % version) 60 61 # 解密 62 def _decode_signed_value_v1(secret, name, value, max_age_days, clock): 63 parts = utf8(value).split(b"|") 64 if len(parts) != 3: 65 return None 66 signature = _create_signature_v1(secret, name, parts[0], parts[1]) 67 if not _time_independent_equals(parts[2], signature): 68 gen_log.warning("Invalid cookie signature %r", value) 69 return None 70 timestamp = int(parts[1]) 71 if timestamp < clock() - max_age_days * 86400: 72 gen_log.warning("Expired cookie %r", value) 73 return None 74 if timestamp > clock() + 31 * 86400: 75 # _cookie_signature does not hash a delimiter between the 76 # parts of the cookie, so an attacker could transfer trailing 77 # digits from the payload to the timestamp without altering the 78 # signature. For backwards compatibility, sanity-check timestamp 79 # here instead of modifying _cookie_signature. 80 gen_log.warning("Cookie timestamp in future; possible tampering %r", 81 value) 82 return None 83 if parts[1].startswith(b"0"): 84 gen_log.warning("Tampered cookie %r", value) 85 return None 86 try: 87 return base64.b64decode(parts[0]) 88 except Exception: 89 return None 90 91 92 def _decode_fields_v2(value): 93 def _consume_field(s): 94 length, _, rest = s.partition(b‘:‘) 95 n = int(length) 96 field_value = rest[:n] 97 # In python 3, indexing bytes returns small integers; we must 98 # use a slice to get a byte string as in python 2. 99 if rest[n:n + 1] != b‘|‘: 100 raise ValueError("malformed v2 signed value field") 101 rest = rest[n + 1:] 102 return field_value, rest 103 104 rest = value[2:] # remove version number 105 key_version, rest = _consume_field(rest) 106 timestamp, rest = _consume_field(rest) 107 name_field, rest = _consume_field(rest) 108 value_field, passed_sig = _consume_field(rest) 109 return int(key_version), timestamp, name_field, value_field, passed_sig 110 111 112 def _decode_signed_value_v2(secret, name, value, max_age_days, clock): 113 try: 114 key_version, timestamp, name_field, value_field, passed_sig = _decode_fields_v2(value) 115 except ValueError: 116 return None 117 signed_string = value[:-len(passed_sig)] 118 119 if isinstance(secret, dict): 120 try: 121 secret = secret[key_version] 122 except KeyError: 123 return None 124 125 expected_sig = _create_signature_v2(secret, signed_string) 126 if not _time_independent_equals(passed_sig, expected_sig): 127 return None 128 if name_field != utf8(name): 129 return None 130 timestamp = int(timestamp) 131 if timestamp < clock() - max_age_days * 86400: 132 # The signature has expired. 133 return None 134 try: 135 return base64.b64decode(value_field) 136 except Exception: 137 return None 138 139 140 def get_signature_key_version(value): 141 value = utf8(value) 142 version = _get_version(value) 143 if version < 2: 144 return None 145 try: 146 key_version, _, _, _, _ = _decode_fields_v2(value) 147 except ValueError: 148 return None 149 150 return key_version
签名Cookie的本质是:
写cookie过程:
- 将值进行base64加密
- 对除值以外的内容进行签名,哈希算法(无法逆向解析)
- 拼接 签名 + 加密值
读cookie过程:
- 读取 签名 + 加密值
- 对签名进行验证
- base64解密,获取值内容
注:许多API验证机制和安全cookie的实现机制相同。
1 #!/usr/bin/env python 2 # -*- coding:utf-8 -*- 3 4 import tornado.ioloop 5 import tornado.web 6 7 8 class MainHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler): 9 10 def get(self): 11 login_user = self.get_secure_cookie("login_user", None) 12 if login_user: 13 self.write(login_user) 14 else: 15 self.redirect(‘/login‘) 16 17 18 class LoginHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler): 19 def get(self): 20 self.current_user() 21 22 self.render(‘login.html‘, **{‘status‘: ‘‘}) 23 24 def post(self, *args, **kwargs): 25 26 username = self.get_argument(‘name‘) 27 password = self.get_argument(‘pwd‘) 28 if username == ‘wupeiqi‘ and password == ‘123‘: 29 self.set_secure_cookie(‘login_user‘, ‘武沛齐‘) 30 self.redirect(‘/‘) 31 else: 32 self.render(‘login.html‘, **{‘status‘: ‘用户名或密码错误‘}) 33 34 settings = { 35 ‘template_path‘: ‘template‘, 36 ‘static_path‘: ‘static‘, 37 ‘static_url_prefix‘: ‘/static/‘, 38 ‘cookie_secret‘: ‘aiuasdhflashjdfoiuashdfiuh‘ 39 } 40 41 application = tornado.web.Application([ 42 (r"/index", MainHandler), 43 (r"/login", LoginHandler), 44 ], **settings) 45 46 47 if __name__ == "__main__": 48 application.listen(8888) 49 tornado.ioloop.IOLoop.instance().start()
1 #!/usr/bin/env python 2 # -*- coding:utf-8 -*- 3 4 import tornado.ioloop 5 import tornado.web 6 7 class BaseHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler): 8 9 def get_current_user(self): 10 return self.get_secure_cookie("login_user") 11 12 class MainHandler(BaseHandler): 13 14 @tornado.web.authenticated 15 def get(self): 16 login_user = self.current_user 17 self.write(login_user) 18 19 20 21 class LoginHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler): 22 def get(self): 23 self.current_user() 24 25 self.render(‘login.html‘, **{‘status‘: ‘‘}) 26 27 def post(self, *args, **kwargs): 28 29 username = self.get_argument(‘name‘) 30 password = self.get_argument(‘pwd‘) 31 if username == ‘wupeiqi‘ and password == ‘123‘: 32 self.set_secure_cookie(‘login_user‘, ‘武沛齐‘) 33 self.redirect(‘/‘) 34 else: 35 self.render(‘login.html‘, **{‘status‘: ‘用户名或密码错误‘}) 36 37 settings = { 38 ‘template_path‘: ‘template‘, 39 ‘static_path‘: ‘static‘, 40 ‘static_url_prefix‘: ‘/static/‘, 41 ‘cookie_secret‘: ‘aiuasdhflashjdfoiuashdfiuh‘, 42 ‘login_url‘: ‘/login‘ 43 } 44 45 application = tornado.web.Application([ 46 (r"/index", MainHandler), 47 (r"/login", LoginHandler), 48 ], **settings) 49 50 51 if __name__ == "__main__": 52 application.listen(8888) 53 tornado.ioloop.IOLoop.instance().start()
3、JavaScript操作Cookie
由于Cookie保存在浏览器端,所以在浏览器端也可以使用JavaScript来操作Cookie。
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/* 设置cookie,指定秒数过期 */ function setCookie(name,value,expires){ var temp = []; var current_date = new Date(); current_date.setSeconds(current_date.getSeconds() + 5); document.cookie = name + "= " + value + ";expires=" + current_date.toUTCString(); } |
对于参数:
- domain 指定域名下的cookie
- path 域名下指定url中的cookie
- secure https使用
注:jQuery中也有指定的插件 jQuery Cookie 专门用于操作cookie,猛击这里
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