求一篇英文论文

Posted 2023-03-30

那位高手有能提供一篇英文论文5000单词左右，关于人力资源管理的都行，谢谢

http://www.managementhelp.org/hr_mgmnt/hr_mgmnt.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_resource_management

http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E5%8A%9B%E8%B5%84%E6%BA%90%E7%AE%A1%E7%90%86

http://books.google.com.sg/books?id=FciK6xtWfy0C&pg=PT166&lpg=PT166&dq=Private+Enterprise+human+resource+management&source=web&ots=OFncstpski&sig=6f_0AsxbQZFRexeS08L8UAT_Zf8&hl=en

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_human_resource_management_topics

http://books.google.com.sg/books?hl=en&id=9fWF_ndSCcAC&dq=human+resource+management&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=4xwIYBuMf9&sig=6qfNhxSFoKD-_s0NWnwVdVS-vHk

http://books.google.com.sg/books?hl=en&id=EZ1CLRm3FnQC&dq=human+resource+management&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=e9ZXXrcD0q&sig=i_JxI28y7ZXehl-dqvoX-KtdldI

http://books.google.com.sg/books?hl=en&id=1m0i_YKPDNwC&dq=human+resource+management&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=yu6BZIhFj_&sig=WU6l52bZ0JH2JZPN4Qy038OtuKA

http://books.google.com.sg/books?hl=en&id=Gu1YWQGHgLcC&dq=human+resource+management&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=H7SbJNAizE&sig=Y3GssDjBHljJr3aRrmVgCaA9gTY

http://books.google.com.sg/books?hl=en&id=bnAiaXdzbRwC&dq=human+resource+management&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=NbX4F8U9oG&sig=umxDaoU05w_dZkxyT_usnZH5lR0

http://books.google.com.sg/books?hl=en&id=Vs98_GTpU5EC&dq=human+resource+management&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=571NexI6ER&sig=i8A4B8m2nb1LkNv8UrzVcgm2XI8

http://books.google.com.sg/books?hl=en&id=aQpPzvu4eC0C&dq=human+resource+management&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=9c4a-JsUBC&sig=N8_-lXARbKr61H9yKwrhNcPQF8Y

http://books.google.com.sg/books?hl=en&id=2BWLZTWoAeUC&dq=human+resource+management&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=msCayB2Gwr&sig=2WxIZuqhy3ZvWW7rPYsqCwkOwcY

Human resource management (HRM) is the strategic and coherent approach to the management of an organization's most valued assets - the people working there who individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of the objectives of the business.[1] The terms "human resource management" and "human resources" (HR) have largely replaced the term "personnel management" as a description of the processes involved in managing people in organizations.[1] Human Resource management is evolving rapidly. Human resource management is both an academic theory and a business practice that addresses the theoretical and practical techniques of managing a workforce.

Features
Its features include:

Personnel administration
Personnel management
Manpower management
Industrial management[2][3]
But these traditional expressions are becoming less common for the theoretical discipline. Sometimes even industrial relations and employee relations are confusingly listed as synonyms,[4] although these normally refer to the relationship between management and workers and the behavior of workers in companies.

The theoretical discipline is based primarily on the assumption that employees are individuals with varying goals and needs, and as such should not be thought of as basic business resources, such as trucks and filing cabinets. The field takes a positive view of workers, assuming that virtually all wish to contribute to the enterprise productively, and that the main obstacles to their endeavors are lack of knowledge, insufficient training, and failures of process.

HRM is seen by practitioners in the field as a more innovative view of workplace management than the traditional approach. Its techniques force the managers of an enterprise to express their goals with specificity so that they can be understood and undertaken by the workforce, and to provide the resources needed for them to successfully accomplish their assignments. As such, HRM techniques, when properly practiced, are expressive of the goals and operating practices of the enterprise overall. HRM is also seen by many to have a key role in risk reduction within organisations.[5]

Synonyms such as personnel management are often used in a more restricted sense to describe activities that are necessary in the recruiting of a workforce, providing its members with payroll and benefits, and administrating their work-life needs. So if we move to actual definitions, Torrington and Hall (1987) define personnel management as being:

“a series of activities which: first enable working people and their employing organisations to agree about the objectives and nature of their working relationship and, secondly, ensures that the agreement is fulfilled" (p. 49).

While Miller (1987) suggests that HRM relates to:

".......those decisions and actions which concern the management of employees at all levels in the business and which are related to the implementation of strategies directed towards creating and sustaining competitive advantage" (p. 352).

Academic theory
The goal of human resource management is to help an organization to meet strategic goals by attracting, and maintaining employees and also to manage them effectively. The key word here perhaps is "fit", i.e. a HRM approach seeks to ensure a fit between the management of an organization's employees, and the overall strategic direction of the company (Miller, 1989).

The basic premise of the academic theory of HRM is that humans are not machines, therefore we need to have an interdisciplinary examination of people in the workplace. Fields such as psychology, industrial engineering, industrial and organizational psychology, industrial relations, sociology, and critical theories: postmodernism, post-structuralism play a major role. Many colleges and universities offer bachelor and master degrees in Human Resources Management.

One widely used scheme to describe the role of HRM, developed by Dave Ulrich, defines 4 fields for the HRM function:[6]

Strategic business partner
Change agent
Employee champion
Administration
However, many HR functions these days struggle to get beyond the roles of administration and employee champion, and are seen rather as reactive than strategically proactive partners for the top management. In addition, HR organizations also have the difficulty in proving how their activities and processes add value to the company. Only in the recent years HR scholars and HR professionals are focusing to develop models that can measure if HR adds value.[7]

Critical Academic Theory
Postmodernism plays an important part in Academic Theory and particularly in Critical Theory. Indeed Karen Legge in 'Human Resource Management: Rhetorics and Realities' possess the debate of whether HRM is a modernist project or a postmodern discourse (Legge 2004). In many ways, critically or not, many writers contend that HRM itself is an attempt to move away from the modernist traditions of personnel (man as machine) towards a postmodernist view of HRM (man as individuals). Critiques include the notion that because 'Human' is the subject we should recognize that people are complex and that it is only through various discourses that we understand the world. Man is not Machine, no matter what attempts are made to change it i.e. Fordism / Taylorism, McDonaldisation (Modernism).

Critical Theory also questions whether HRM is the pursuit of "attitudinal shaping" (Wilkinson 1998), particularly when considering empowerment, or perhaps more precisely pseudo-empowerment - as the critical perspective notes. Many critics note the move away from Man as Machine is often in many ways, more a Linguistic (discursive) move away than a real attempt to recognise the Human in Human Resource Management.

Critical Theory, in particular postmodernism (poststructualism), recognises that because the subject is people in the workplace, the subject is a complex one, and therefore simplistic notions of 'the best way' or a unitary perspectives on the subject are too simplistic. It also considers the complex subject of power, power games, and office politics. Power in the workplace is a vast and complex subject that cannot be easily defined. This leaves many critics to suggest that Management 'Gurus', consultants, 'best practice' and HR models are often overly simplistic, but in order to sell an idea, they are simplified, and often lead Management as a whole to fall into the trap of oversimplifying the relationship.

Business practice
Human resources management comprises several processes. Together they are supposed to achieve the above mentioned goal. These processes can be performed in an HR department, but some tasks can also be outsourced or performed by line-managers or other departments.

Workforce planning
Recruitment (sometimes separated into attraction and selection)
Induction and Orientation
Skills management
Training and development
Personnel administration
Compensation in wage or salary
Time management
Travel management (sometimes assigned to accounting rather than HRM)
Payroll (sometimes assigned to accounting rather than HRM)
Employee benefits administration
Personnel cost planning
Performance appraisal

Careers
The sort of careers available in HRM are varied. There are generalist HRM jobs such as human resource assistant. There are careers involved with employment, recruitment and placement and these are usually conducted by interviewers, EOE (Equal Opportunity Employment) specialists or college recruiters. Training and development specialism is often conducted by trainers and orientation specialists. Compensation and benefits tasks are handled by compensation analysts, salary administrators, and benefits administrators.

Professional organizations
Professional organizations in HRM include the Society for Human Resource Management, the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD), the International Public Management Association for HR (IPMA-HR) and the International Personnel Management Association of Canada (IPMA-Canada).Management Association of Nepal [MAN]

人力资源管理，是指为了完成管理工作中涉及人或人事方面的任务所进行的管理工作。

人力资源管理工作包括：工作分析；制定人力需求计划以及人员招募；培训及开发；薪酬及福利管理、绩效评估；劳动关系管理等。

人力资源管理愈来愈被重视。在经济发展成熟的体系下，人力资源管理必须配合以争取最佳的资源效益，若将不适当的人力配对不适当的职位，资源效益不但全无，或可能有损耗。现代经济讲求平衡及配合，提升管理效能和质素，就要人力资源配合以作平衡，个中的内容是设立人力资源架构框架，用最适合的人做最适合的工作。建立人力资源平台，作为沟通及搜集资讯渠道，将各方意见综合，舍短取长，以处理薪酬、福利等事宜。人力资源最重要是培训及发展，人力资源发展必须投资在培训方面，以发挥各阶层的人力资源潜能。

发展简史
在现实世界不同的国家人力资源的发展情况以及历史都不同。一般说来，人力资源的学术界发展经历了：人事管理（Personnel Management），人力资源管理（Human Resource Management）到现在新近兴起的人力资本管理（Human Capital Management）。其只要不同即在于公司和企业对待职员的理念的变化和发展。

在人事管理阶段，人事经理们的工作是管理职工福利，以及和工会的法律程序方面。公司的上层管理部门将人事部门的各种活动以及公司职员皆看作公司的大笔纯支出，而尽可能的削减这部分的开支。公司对人事部的活动持不积极的支持态度。
在人力资源管理阶段，企业员工被看成企业的可以增值的资产而被发展以期充分利用潜能。人力资源部门充分利用职位分析，工作分析，职位概述，人员选择和招聘，员工培训等等活动来提高企业员工的效率，从而增加企业的管理和运营更加有效。当一个公司实行人力资源管理战略的时候，人力资源部门将被纳入公司战略计划的一个重要组成部分。公司的未来发展，市场拓展，新产品研发等等都要牵扯到人力资源部门的支持，协调与合作。人力资源被作为提高公司竞争力的战略手段而被重视。除此之外，人力资源管理就是协助公司去激励员工，透过一些物质上的满足和一些财务奖励，从而增加员工的对公司归属感、增加员工士气和减低对工作的不满等¨。有高昂的士气会使工作更加有效率和使工作更加顺利，最终公司和员工也各有得益。
在人力资本管理阶段，人力部门的基本职责仍与人力资源管理时期相似，但是企业员工不再被看作有发展潜力的资产，而是公司可以利用的资本。人力资源部门的各项活动被量化与公司的利润率挂钩，并且这也是衡量职工和各部门是否有效工作的主要手段。

主要职能
人力资源管理的主要职能包括：人员招募；培训及开发；薪酬及福利管理。

人员招募：

人员招募又称为人员招聘。主要是基于组织（公司，政府，非盈利组织等）的近期及远期的业务需要，来制定人员需求的计划，并通过各种招聘手段来完成组织的人员需求。

人员招募主要涉及人员规划，简历收集，选聘，录用及员工入职培训。

培训及开发：

培训及开发主要是通过一些培训及开发的技术及手段，提高员工的技能，以适应公司所处经营环境中的技术及知识的变化。

主要的技术及手段有：

培训 在岗培训 轮岗 员工继续教育计划 辅导，训导

薪酬；福利管理：

人力资源管理的内外部条件

人力资源管理的外部条件
劳动法规
劳动力市场
当地文化

人力资源管理的内部条件
企业经营战略
国际化程度

人力资源部的组织设置
有以下三种方式：

职能型组织设置
人力规划
人力购得
培训与进修
工资和薪水
社会事业
对象型组织设置
技术类员工
管理类员工
领导层
受培训者
混合模式 参考技术A The Dimensions of Management
The Essential Drucker Peter F. Drucker

Business enterprises—and public-service institutions as well—are organs of society. They do not exist for their own sake, but to fulfill a specific social purpose and to satisfy a specific need of a society, a community, or individuals. They are not ends in themselves, but means. The right question to ask in respect to them is not, what are they? But, what are they supposed to be doing and what are their tasks?
Management, in turn, is the organ of the institution.
The question, what is management, comes second. First we have to define management in and through its tasks.
There are three tasks, equally important but essentially different, that management has to perform to enable the institution in its charge to function and to make its contribution.
Establishing the specific purpose and mission of the institution, whether business enterprise, hospital, or university;
Making work productive and the worker effective;
Managing social impacts and social responsibilities.

Mission
An institution exists for a specific purpose and mission; it has a specific social function. In the business enterprise, this means economic performance.
With respect to this first task, the task of economic performance, business and nonbusiness institutions differ. In respect to every other task, they are similar. But only business has economic performance as its specific mission; it is the definition of a business that it exists for the sake of economic performance. In all other institutions—hospital, church, university, or armed services—economic considerations are a restraint. In business enterprise, economic performance is the rationale and purpose.
Business management must always, in every decision and action, put economic performance first. It can justify its existence and its authority only by the economic results it produces. A business management has failed if it does not produce economic results. It has failed if it does not supply goods and services desired by the consumer at a price the consumer is willing to pay. It has failed if it does not improve, or at least maintain, the wealth-producing capacity of the economic resources entrusted to it. And this, whatever the economic or political structure or ideology of a society, means responsibility for profitability.

Worker Achievement
The second task of management is to make work productive and the worker effective. A business enterprise (or any other institution) has only one true resource: people. It succeeds by making human resources productive. It accomplishes its goals through work. To make work productive is, therefore, an essential function. But at the same time, these institutions in today’s society are increasingly the means through which individual human beings find their livelihood, find their access to social status, to community and to individual achievement and satisfaction. To make the worker productive is, therefore, more and more important and is a measure of the performance of an institution. It is increasingly a task of management.
Organizing work according to its own logic is only the first step. The second and far more difficult one is making work suitable for human beings—and their logic is radically different from the logic of work. Making the worker achieving implies consideration of the human being as an organism having peculiar physiological and psychological properties, abilities, and limitations, and a distinct mode of action.

Social Responsibilities
The third task of management is managing the social impacts and the social responsibilities of the enterprise. None of our institutions exists by itself and is an end in itself. Every one is an organ of society and exists for the sake of society. Business is no exception. Free enterprise cannot be justified as being good for business; it can be justified only as being good for society.
Business exists to supply goods and services to customers, rather than to supply jobs to workers and managers, or even dividends to stockholders. The hospital does not exist for the sake of doctors and nurses, but for the sake of patients whose one and only desire is to leave the hospital cured and never comeback. Psychologically, geographically, culturally, and socially, institutions must be part of the community.
To discharge its job, to produce economic goods and services, the business enterprise has to have impact on people, on communities, and on society. It has to have power and authority over people, e.g., employees, whose own ends and purposes are not defined by and within the enterprise. It has to have impact on the community as a neighbor, as the source of jobs and tax revenue (but also of waste products and pollutants). And, increasingly, in our pluralist society of organizations, it has to add to its fundamental concern for the quantities of life—i.e., economic goods and services—concern for the quality of life, that is, for the physical, human, and social environment of modern man and modern community.

A Philosophy of Management
What the business enterprise needs is a principle of management that will give full scope to individual strength and responsibility, and at the same time give common direction of vision and effort, establish team work, and harmonize the goals of the individual with the common weal.
The only principle that can do this is management by objectives and self-control. It makes the commonweal the aim of every manager. It substitutes for control from outside the stricter, more exacting and more effective control from the inside. It motivates the manager to action not because somebody tells him to do something or talks him into doing it, but because the objective needs of his task demand it. He acts not because somebody wants him to but because he himself decides that he has to—he acts, in other words, as a free man.

Picking People the Basic Rules
Making the right people decisions is the ultimate means of controlling an organization well. Such decisions reveal how competent management is, what its values are, and whether it takes its job seriously. No matter how hard managers try to keep their decisions a secret—and some still try hard—people decisions cannot be hidden. They are eminently visible.

Decision-Making and the Computer
The Effective Executive Peter F. Drucker

As a result, decision-making can no longer be confined to the very small group at the top. In one way or another almost every knowledge worker in an organization will either have to become a decision-maker himself or will at least have to be able to play an active, an intelligent, and an autonomous part in the decision-making process. What in the past had been a highly specialized function, discharged by a small and usually clearly defined organ—with the rest adapting within a mold of custom and usage—is rapidly becoming a normal if not an everyday task of every single unit in this new social institution, the large-scale knowledge organization. The ability to make effective decisions increasingly determines the ability of every knowledge worker, at least of those in responsible positions, to be effective altogether.
There are additional implications of the computer for decision-making. If properly used, for instance, it should free senior executives from much of the preoccupation with events inside the organization to which they are now being condemned by the absence or tardiness of reliable information. It should make it much easier for the executive to go and look for himself on the outside; that is, in the area where alone an organization can have results.
There is indeed ample reason why the appearance of the computer has sparked interest in decision-making. But the reason is not that the computer will “take over” the decision. The reason is that with the computer’s taking over computation, people all the way down the line in the organization will have to learn to be executives and to make effective decisions.

管理的范畴
彼得·德鲁克

商业企业和公共服务机构一样也是社会的基本组成部分。它们的存在不是为了自己，而是为了实现某种特定目标和满足社会、组织或个人的某种特殊需求。它们本身不是目的，而是手段和工具。对企业提出的正确问题不是“企业是什么？”，而是“它们应该做什么？”和“它们的任务是什么？”
“管理层是什么？”这个问题是次要的，首先我们必须根据并通过管理层的任务来对它下定义。
管理层面对着三项必须执行以确保组织机构履行其自身的职责和功能并完成任务，他们同样重要，但性质不同。
1)确保组织机构的特定目标和使命，无论其为企业，医院或是大学；
2)使工作富有成效，员工工作效率更高；
3)对社会产生影响并肩负起社会责任。
使命
一个组织机构是为了其特定的目标和使命而存在，并有着特定的社会功能。企业的使命和社会功能就是创造经济业绩。
就第一项任务——经济业绩而言，企业和非企业组织是不同的。而他们其他的任务则非常相似。但只有企业才把创造经济业绩作为其特定使命；我们为旗下的定义为：为创造经济业绩而存在的组织。而其他组织如医院、教堂、医院、大学和军队是不以经济业绩为目标和使命的。作为企业，经济业绩却是基本的任务和目标。
企业做任何决策和行动都会把经济业绩放在首位。只有通过它生产的成果才能证明它的存在的价值。如果管理层无法使得企业创造经济成就，那它就是失败的；如果企业不能提供有消费意愿的消费者能支付价格的范围内的产品和服务，那么它就是失败的；如果企业不能改进或提高创造财富的能力，那么它同样是失败的。这就意味着，无论社会实行什么样的经济或者政治政策，企业的责任都是盈利。
使员工取得成就
管理层的第二项任务就是使员工工作卓有成效并取得成就。企业或任何其他组织机构只有一种真正的资源：人。企业管理层通过有效地利用人力资源而使得企业达到成功。企业的管理层通过工作获得业绩。因此，使工作富有成效使管理层的基本任务。但同时，当今社会的各种组织机构越来越成为个人发挥自己专业特长，谋求自身在社会、团体中的地位，以及寻求自我成功、实现自我价值的场所。所以，使员工取得成就就日益重要，并且成为衡量组织机构业绩的一种尺度，并成为了管理层的一项任务。
根据工作本身的规律来组织工作仅仅是工作富有成效的第一步。使工作富有成效的第二步要困难得多，它需要使工作室和员工去做——这一规律和工作本身的规律是截然不同的。要使员工取得成就，这意味着要将人作为一种具有各种独特的生理和心理特征、能力，以及具有各种独特的局限性和独特的行为方式的生命个体来对待。
社会责任
管理的第三项任务就是使企业承担起社会责任，对社会产生积极的影响。没有一个组织机构可以独立于社会，并以自己为目的。每一个机构都是社会的一个组成部分，为社会而存在。企业机构也不例外。我们不能因为自由的企业对商业界有利就想当然地认为它是正当的，只有它有利于社会时，我们才可以认为它是正当的。
企业的存在并不是为工人和管理者提供工作岗位或是为向股东提供红利，而是为了向消费者提供商品或服务。医院的存在也不是为了医生和护士，而是为了那些想通过医院的治疗就能不在重返医院的患者提供医疗服务。从心理的角度、地理的角度、文化的角度和社会的角度来看，各种组织机构都应该是整个社会的组成部分。
为了做好自己的本职工作——创造和提供更经济的物品和服务，企业必然会对民众、社团、和社会起到一定的作用。企业就必须对某些人，例如那些自己的目的和目标并不局限于企业的雇员，行使自己的责权。企业必然对社会的其他成员起到某种作用，例如，它与社会其他成员有着一种“邻里关系”，它为社会其他成员提供就业岗位，为政府提供税收来源，同时，它也会造成产品的浪费和环境的污染。于是，在我们这个由各种组织机构组成的、具有各种功能的社会中，企业就必须逐渐地将自己的基本注意力放在人类生活的量（即不断通过向社会提供更多的产品和服务）和质（即通过不断提高与现代人和现代社会相适应的物质、生活、社会环境质量）上。
基本管理原则
企业所需要的管理原则必须既能充分调动每个员工的专长和责任感，同时又能规定共同的努力方向和愿景，开展团队工作，并对个人目标和共同利益进行协调。
能做到这一点的唯一途径就是实施目标管理和自我管理。目标管理和自我管理能把企业的共同利益变成每个管理人员的目标，并且以要求更高、更严并富有成效的内部控制来取代外部控制。这种管理原则会激励管理者采取行动，不是因为有人要他们这样或说服他们这么做，而是因为他们的目标需要他们采取行动。管理人员之所以会采取行动，不是因为有人要求他们，而是因为他们自己决定要采取行动。换句话说，他们能够向自由人一样行动。
用人决策的基本原则
正确的人事决策是控制好组织机构的重要手段。人事决策体现了管理层的竞争力和他们的价值观，以及他们对待本职工作的态度。无论管理者如何设法保密他的人事决策，虽然有人还正在这么做，但人事决策是不会被隐瞒的。它们是显而易见的。
这样一来，决策不再是最高层中少数人的事。在现代机构户，几乎每个知识工作者或多或少都已成为决策者，要不至少也得在决策的过程个发挥着积极的、主动的和令人大开眼界的作用。在过去，决策是一件高度专业化的工作，它是由极少数人和专业部门来做的。而对其他部门来说，只是按照某种习惯的模式贯彻执行这些决策罢了。可是在当前那些规模较大的知识机构中，决策正在变成一种常规工作．尽管目前尚未达到日常工作的程度。进行有效决策的能力．现在已越来越成为知识工作者工作能力强弱的一种表现，至少对那些想提高工作效率、负有一定责任的知识工作者更是如此。

决策和电脑
彼得·德鲁克
电脑当然还可以用于决策的其他方面。比如，只要使用适当，电脑可以帮助高级管理者从繁杂的事务中解脱出来。由于缺乏可靠的信息，他们往往不得不埋头于那些事务之中。有了电脑后，管理者就会有更多的机会走到外界去看一看，因为只有外界才是企业效益的真正根源。
的确有充分的理由可以说明，电脑的出现已激起了人们对决策的新兴趣。但这并不是说电脑将会“取代”人来进行决策。电脑真正的好处是它可以代替人进行复杂的运算，从而使机构内的各层管理人员有更多的时间可以学习如何当好管理者，如何做出卓有成效的决策。

求一篇压缩机方面的英文论文（最好是隔膜压缩机的）3000字以上

我的毕业设计是V型隔膜压缩机，需要一篇外文翻译，英汉都有的，税后帮帮忙，能用的话我给您追加200分。

参考技术A The Basics

A jet engine can be divided into several distinct sections: intake, compressor, diffuser, combustion chamber, turbine, and exhaust. These sections are much like the different cycles in a four-stroke reciprocating engine: intake, compression, power and exhaust. In a four-stroke engine a fuel/air mixture is is brought into the engine (intake), compressed (compression), and finally ignited and pushed out the exhaust (power and exhaust). In it's most basic form, a jet engine works in much the same way.

* Air comes in the front of the engine where it enters the compressor. The air is compressed by a series of small spinning blades aptly named compressor blades and leaves at a high pressure. The pressure ratio between the beginning and end of the compressor can be as much as 48:1, but almost always 12:1 or more.
* The air now enters the diffuser, which is nothing more than an area where the air can expand and lower it's velocity, thus increasing its pressure a little bit more.
* The high pressure air at the end of the diffuser now enters the combustion chamber where it is mixed with fuel, ignited and burned.
* When the fuel/air mixture burns, the temperature increases (obviously) which makes the air expand.
* This expanding gas drives a set of turbine blades located aft of the combustion chamber. At least some of these turbine blades are connected by a shaft to the compressor blades to drive them. Depending on the type of engine, there may be another set of turbine blades used to drive another shaft to do other things, such as turn a propeller or generator.
* The left over energy not extracted by the turbine blades is pushed out the back of the engine (exhaust section) and creates thrust, usually used to drive an airplane forward.

The types of jet engines include:

* Turbojet
* Turbofan
* Turboprop
* Turbo shaft

Turbojet

The turbojet is the simplest of them all, it is just as described in "The basics" section. This style was the first type of jet engine to be used in aircraft. It is a pretty primitive style used mostly in early military jet fighters such as the F-86. Its use was discontinued, for the most part, in favor of the more efficient turbofans. Actually, I should clarify that. Each type of engine is most efficient under certain conditions. Turbojets are most efficient at high altitudes and speeds above the speed of sound. See the diagram at the end of this page for relative efficiencies of each style engine.

Turbofan

Turbofans make up the majority of jet engines being produced and used today. A turbofan engine uses an extra set of turbine blades to drive a large fan, typically on the front of the engine. This fan differs from a propeller in that there are many small blades and they are inside of a duct. The fan sits just in front of the normal intake, some of the air driven by this fan will enter the engine, while the rest will go around the outside. The amount of air that bypasses the engine is different for each type of airplane. The different styles are called high and low bypass engines. Bypass ratio is the ratio of how much air goes through the fan, to how much goes through the engine. Typical bypass ratios would be 1:1 for a low bypass and 5:1 or more for a high bypass. Low bypass engines are more efficient at higher speeds, and are used on planes such as military aircraft, while high bypass engines are used in commercial airliners.

Turboprop

Turboprops are similar to turbofans in that they incorporate an extra set of turbine blades used to drive the propeller. Unlike the turbofan engines, nearly all the thrust produced by a turboprop is from the propellor, hardly any thrust comes from the exhaust. These engines are used mostly on smaller and slower planes such as commuter aircraft that fly to the smaller airports. As you can see from the efficiency chart below, turboprops are very efficient over a fairly wide range of speeds. They would probably be used more often on large transport aircraft, except for one problem: they have propellors. The general public does not like propellors, as they appear to be old-fashioned and unsafe. However, the military knows better and uses them on several large transport aircraft.

Turbo shaft

Turbo shaft engines are very similar to turboprop engines, but instead of driving a propellor, they are used to drive something else. Many helicopters use them to drive their rotors, and airliners and other large jets use them to generate electricity. Also, the Alaska Pipeline uses them at the pump stations to pump oil.

Overall

Overall the big difference between these engines is how they take a chunk of air and move it. Newton's third law states that Force equals mass times acceleration. Applying this to turbine engines: the turboprop takes a large chunk and accelerates it a little bit, while the turbojet takes a small chunk and accelerates the heck out of it, and the turbofan is somewhere in between these two.

These different methods of moving air also have to do with how much noise each engine makes. The turbojet makes the most noise because there is a large difference in velocities of the blast of air coming out the exhaust and the surrounding air. The air from the fan on a turbofan engine "shields" the blast in the center by having the slower moving air from the fan surround it. Then the turboprop is the quietest of all because the air it's moving is relatively slow.

A pressure - volume diagram (or a P-V diagram) is a useful tool in thermodynamics. In this case, it relates the pressure and volume of the gas moving through the engine at different stages. A P-V diagram can also be helpful in finding the work output of an engine. Work equals the integral of pressure with respect to volume. Or is simpler form, work equals the area enclosed in the diagram above. The above cycle is the Brayton cycle, or the cycle used by aircraft gas turbine engines.

Explanation of the above cycle:

* Air enters the inlet at point 1 at atmospheric pressure.
* As this air passes through the compressor (from point 1 to 2), the pressure rises adiabatically (no heat enters or leaves the system).
* Now the air enters the combustion chamber (from point 2 to 3), is mixed with fuel, and burned at a constant pressure.
* Finally, the air goes through the turbine and out the exhaust (point 3 to 4) where the gases expand and do work. Thus, the pressure drops and the volume increases.

The Compressor

There are two main styles for turbine compressors: the axial and the centrifugal.

The Axial Compressor

* The axial type compressor is made up of many small blades, called rotor vanes, arranged in rows on a cylinder whose radius gets larger towards the back (as can be seen from the above picture). These blades act much like small propellors.
* In between these rotor vanes are stator vanes which stay in a fixed spot and straighten the air coming out of the previous stage of rotor vanes before it enters the next stage.
* On some newer engines, the angle of these stator vanes can be adjusted for optimum efficiency.
* Each stage (1 row of rotor and stator vanes) generally provides for a pressure rise of about 1.3:1 (so after the first stage, the pressure would be 1.3 above atmospheric, after the second it would be 1.69, 2.2, etc...).

The Centrifugal Compressor

* Air enters the centrifugal compressor at the front and center. The blades then sling the air radially outwards where it is once again collected (at a higher pressure) before it enters the diffuser.
* Pressure rise per stage is usually about 4 to 8:1 (higher than axial). These can be sombined in series (that is the exit of the first leads to the entrance of the next) to produce a greater pressure rise. But more than two stages is not practical.

- Jet engines are rated in "pounds of thrust," while turboprops and turboshaft engines are rated in "shaft horsepower" (SHP). This is because it is difficult to hook up a dynamometer (power measuring device) to the column of air coming out of a jet engine, while it is easy to hook one to the shaft of a turboprop.

- An equivalent measure to horsepower is thrust horsepower (THP). THP = (Thrust x MPH) / 375. or THP = SHP x 80% in the case of turboprop engines (the 80% is because the propeller "slips" a little in flight).

- Exhaust gases exit the exhaust at upwards of 1000 mph or more and can use 1000 gallons of fuel/hour or more.

- Turbine engines run lean. Unlike gasoline engines, turbines take in more air than they need for combustion.

- Fuel can be injected into the exhaust section to burn with this unused air for extra thrust. This is called an afterburner.

- A water/methanol mixture can be injected into the intake to increase the air density, and thus increase thrust.

- Turbine engines can be built on a small scale as well. The turbine pictured below has a diameter of 4mm and runs at 500,000 rpm. It was built by at MIT for purposes of powering an aircraft with a wing span of about 5 inches that was projected to fly about 35 - 70 mph with a range of about 40 - 70 miles.
micro turbine

- The ignition system on turbine engines is only necessary for starting, afterwards it is self sustaining. In jets, the ignition system is also turned on for added saftey in "critical" stages of flight, such as takeoff and landing.

- A device similar to a spark plug is used for the ignition process, but it has a larger gap. The spark is about 4 to 20 Joules (watts/second) at about 25000 volts and occurs between 1 and 2 times per second.

- Turbine engines will run on just about anything, they prefer Jet-A (AKA diesel, kerosene, or home heating oil), but can burn unleaded, burbon, or even very finely powdered coal!

- The above snowmachine uses an Allison turbine engine, a very common engine in helicopters (such as the Bell 206 Jet Ranger shown below). A lot of horsepower can be put into a small package! Note the intake and compressor are at the front of the engine, then the two side tubes take the compressed air and bring it around back to the combustion chamber and turbine and the exhaust exits out the middle. There are many engines out there with strange configurations like this.

Communications Technology

Your Rights and what the Data Protection Commissioner can do to help

Right of Access

The personal information to which you are entitled is that held on
computer or in a manual filing system that facilitates access to
information about you. You can make an access request to any
organisation or any individual who has personal information about you.
For example, you could make an access request to your doctor, your
bank, a credit reference agency, a Government Department dealing with
your affairs, or your employer.

If you find out that information kept about you by someone else is
inaccurate, you have a right to have that information corrected (or
"rectified"). In some circumstances, you may also have the information
erased altogether from the database - for example, if the body keeping
the information has no good reason to hold it (i.e. it is irrelevant
or excessive for the purpose), or if the information has not been
obtained fairly. You can exercise your right of rectification or
erasure simply by writing to the body keeping your data.

In addition, you can request a data controller to block your data i.e.
to prevent it from being used for certain purposes. For example, you
might want your data blocked for research purposes where it held for
other purposes.

If an organisation holds your information for the purposes of direct
marketing (such as direct mailing, or telephone marketing), you have
the right to have your details removed from that database. This right
is useful if you are receiving unwanted "junk mail" or annoying
telephone calls from salespeople. You can exercise this right simply
by writing to the organisation concerned. The organisation must write
back to you within 40 days confirming that they have dealt with your
request.

Right to complain to the Data Protection Commissioner

What happens if someone ignores your access request, or refuses to
correct information about you which is inaccurate? If you are having
difficulty in exercising your rights, or if you feel that any person
or organisation is not complying with their responsibilities, then you
may complain to the Data Protection Commissioner, Mr Mead, who will
investigate the matter for you. The Commissioner has legal powers to
ensure that your rights are upheld.

The Data Protection Commissioner will help you to secure your rights:

* with advice and information

* by intervening directly on your behalf if you feel you have not
been given satisfaction

* by taking action against those failing to fulfil their
obligations.

SEE APPENDIX 2 FOR CASE STUDY

Ergonomics

Ergonomics (from Greek ergon work and nomoi natural laws) is the study
of designing objects to be better adapted to the shape of the human
body and/or to correct the user's posture. Common examples include
chairs designed to prevent the user from sitting in positions that may
have a detrimental effect on the spine, and the ergonomic desk which
offers an adjustable keyboard tray, a main desktop of variable height
and other elements which can be changed by the user.

Ergonomics also helps with the design of alternative computer input
devices for people who want to avoid repetitive strain injury or
carpal tunnel syndrome. A normal computer keyboard tends to force
users to keep their hands together and hunch their shoulders. To
prevent the injuries, or to give relief to people who already have
symptoms, special split keyboards, curved keyboards,
not-really-keyboards keyboards, and other alternative input devices
exist.

Ergonomics is much larger than looking at the physiological and
anatomical aspects of the human being. The psychology of humans is
also a key element within the ergonomics discipline. This
psychological portion of ergonomics is usually referred to as Human
factors or Human factors engineering in the U.S., and ergonomics is
the term used in Europe. Understanding design in terms of cognitive
workload, human error, the way humans perceive their surrounds and,
very importantly, the tasks that they undertake are all analysed by
ergonomists.

[IMAGE]

With video conferencing consideration should be taken in positioning
of camera and screens so as to avoid neck strain.

Codec

1. (COder/DECoder or COmpressor/DECompressor) Hardware or software
that encodes/compresses and decodes/decompresses audio and video
data streams. The purpose of a codec is to reduce the size of
digital audio samples and video frames in order to speed up
transmission and save storage space. The goal of all codec
designers is to maintain audio and video quality while compressing
the binary data further. Speech codecs are designed to deal with
the characteristics of voice, while audio codecs are developed for
music. Codecs may also be able to transcode from one digital
format to another; for example, from PCM audio to MP3 audio.

The codec algorithms may be implemented entirely in a chip or entirely
in software in which case the PC does all of the processing. They are
also commonly implemented in both hardware and software where a sound
card or video capture card performs some of the processing, and the
main CPU does the rest.

When analog signals are entered into a computer, cellphone or other
device via a microphone or video source such as a VHS tape or TV,
analog-to-digital converters create the raw digital audio samples and
video frames. Speech, audio and video codecs are typically lossy
codecs that compress data by altering the original format, which is
why "codec" means "encoder/decoder" and "compressor/decompressor." If
a codec uses only lossless compression in which the original data is
restored exactly, then it would not be a coder/decoder. This is a
subtle point, but the two meanings of the acronym have been confusing.

LAN

A local area network (LAN) is a computer network covering a local
area, like a home, office or small group of buildings such as a
college. The topology of a network dictates its physical structure.

The generally accepted maximum size for a LAN is 1000m2. LANs are
different from personal area networks (PANs), metropolitan area
networks (MANs) or wide area networks (WANs). LANs are typically
faster than WANs.

The earliest popular LAN, ARCnet, was released in 1977 by Datapoint
and was originally intended to allow multiple Datapoint 2200s to share
disk storage. Like all early LANs, ARCnet was originally
vendor-specific. Standardization efforts by the IEEE have resulted in
the IEEE 802 series of standards. There are now two common wiring
technologies for a LAN, Ethernet and Token Ring. Wireless technologies
are starting to evolve and are convenient for mobile computer users.

A number of network protocols may use the basic physical transport
mechanism including TCP/IP. In this case DHCP is a convenient way to
obtain an IP address rather than using fixed addressing. LANs can be
interlinked by connections to form a Wide area network. A router is
used to make the connection between LANs.

WAN

WANs are used to connect local area networks together, so that users
and computers in one location can communicate with users and computers
in other locations. Many WANs are built for one particular
organisation and are private, others, built by Internet service
providers provide connections from an organisation's LAN to the
Internet. WANs are most often built of leased lines. At each end of
the leased line, a router connects to the LAN on one side and a hub
within the WAN on the other. A number of network protocols may use the
basic physical transport mechanism including TCP/IP. Other protocols
including X.25 and ATM. Frame relay can also be used for WANs.

Ethernet

Ethernet is normally a shared media LAN. All stations on the segment
share the total bandwidth, which is either 10 Mbps (Ethernet), 100
Mbps (Fast Ethernet) or 1000 Mbps (Gigabit Ethernet). With switched
Ethernet, each sender and receiver pair have the full bandwidth.When
using Ethernet the computers are usually wired to a hub or to a switch.
This constitutes the physical transport mechanism.

Fiber-optic Ethernet (10BaseF and 100BaseFX) is impervious to external
radiation and is often used to extend Ethernet segments up to 1.2
miles. Specifications exist for complete fiber-optic networks as well
as backbone implementations. FOIRL (Fiber-Optic Inter Repeater Link)
was an earlier standard that is limited to .6 miles distance.