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Posted 2022-09-30 we1less

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Determining the age of the universe has been more complicated. Most stars in the universe are clustered into enormous disk-like galaxies. The distance between our galaxy, known as the Milky Way, and all others is increasing. In fact, all galaxies are moving away from one another, evidence that the universe is expanding. It is not the galaxies themselves that are expanding but the space between them. What is happening is analogous to inflating a balloon with small coins attached to its surface. The coins behave like galaxies: although they do not expand, the space between them does. Before the galaxies formed, matter that they contain was concentrated with infinite density at a single point from which it exploded in an event called the big bang. Even after it assembled into galaxies, matter continued to spread in all directions from the site of the big bang.

7. Why does the author refer to “inflating a balloon with small coins attached to its surface”?
A. To help explain how the universe can expand while the galaxies remain the same size
B. To imply that the universe must eventually stop expanding
C. To support the statement that most stars are found in disk-shaped galaxies
D. To help explain how the universe began as a single point of dense matter

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Islamic Art and the Book
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The arts of the Islamic book, such as calligraphy and decorative drawing, developed during A.D. 900 to 1500, and luxury books are some of the most characteristic examples of Islamic art produced in this period. This came about from two major developments: paper became common, replacing parchment as the major medium for writing, and rounded scripts were regularized and perfected so that they replaced the angular scripts of the previous period, which because of their angularity were uneven in height. Books became major vehicles for artistic expression, and the artists who produced them, notably calligraphers and painters, enjoyed high status, and their workshops were often sponsored by princes and their courts. Before A.D. 900, manuscripts of the Koran (the book containing the teachings of the Islamic religion) seem to have been the most common type of book produced and decorated, but after that date a wide range of books were produced for a broad spectrum of patrons. These continued to include, of course, manuscripts of the Koran, which every Muslim wanted to read, but scientific works, histories, romances, and epic and lyric poetry were also copied in fine handwriting and decorated with beautiful illustrations. Most were made for sale on the open market, and cities boasted special souks(markets) where books were bought and sold. The mosque of Marrakech in Morocco is known as the Kutubiyya, or Booksellers’ Mosque, after the adjacent market. Some of the most luxurious books were specific commissions made at the order of a particular prince and sighed by the calligrapher and decorator.

5. In paragraph 1, why does the author mention the fact that the mosque in Marrakech, Morocco, is known as the Booksellers’ Mosque?
○ To cast doubt on the importance of souks in making books available to common people
○ To provide an example of a place where books were made at the order of a particular prince
○ To emphasize how influential and well known the book markets were
○ To demonstrate the need for religious texts in Islamic lands

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The introduction of paper spurred a conceptual revolution whose consequences have barely been explored. Although paper was never as cheap as it has become today, it was far less expensive than parchment, and therefore more people could afford to buy books. Paper is thinner than parchment, so more pages could be enclosed within a single volume. At first, paper was made in relatively small sheets that were pasted together, but by the beginning of the fourteenth century, very large sheets---as much as a meter across---were available. These large sheets meant that calligraphers and artists had more space on which to work. Paintings became more complicated, giving the artist greater opportunities to depict space or emotion. The increased availability of paper, particularly after 1250, encouraged people to develop systems of representation, such as architectural plans and drawings. This in turn allowed the easy transfer of artistic ideas and motifs over great distances, from one medium to another, and in a different scale in ways that had been difficult, if not impossible, in the previous period.

9. Why does the author include the following information: “At first, paper was made in relatively small sheets that were pasted together, but by the beginning of the fourteenth century, very large sheets---as much as a meter across---were available.”?
A. To provide evidence that the development of papermaking techniques was very slow
B. To explain why paper was never as cheap as it has become today
C. To make the point that paper allowed artists to develop paintings that were more expressive and complex
D. To prove that paper was more popular with artists, who used large sheets, than it was with book printers, who used smaller sheets.

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Energy and the Industrial Revolution
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For years historians have sought to identify crucial elements in the eighteenth-century rise in industry, technology, and economic power, known as the Industrial Revolution, and many give prominence to the problem of energy. Until the eighteenth century, people relied on energy derived from plants as well as animal and human muscle to provide power. Increased efficiency in the use of water and wind helped with such tasks as pumping, milling, or sailing. However, by the eighteenth century, Great Britain in particular was experiencing an energy shortage. Wood, the primary source of heat for homes and industries and also used in the iron industry as processed charcoal, was diminishing in supply. Great Britain had large amounts of coal; however, there were not yet efficient means by which to produce mechanical energy or to power machinery. This was to occur with progress in the development of the steam engine.

1. Why does the author provide the information that “Great Britain had large amounts of coal”?
○ To reject the claim that Britain was facing an energy shortage in the eighteenth century
○ To explain why coal rather than other energy resources became the primary source of heat for homes and industries in eighteenth-century Britain
○ To indicate that Britain’s energy shortage was not the result of a lack of fuel
○ To explain why coal mining became an important industry in nineteenth-century

2. What was “the problem of energy” that had to be solved to make the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth century possible?
○ Water and wind could not be used efficiently
○ There was no efficient way to power machinery
○ Steam engines required large amounts of coal, which was in short supply
○ Neither humans nor animal were strong enough to provide the power required for industrial application