英语的发生和发展

Posted 2023-04-12

Historical Background of British and American English

The history of the English language is divided into three periods: The period from 450 to 1150 is known as the Old English. It is described as the period of full inflections(词尾变化), since during most of this period the case ending of the noun, the adjective and the conjugation(结合) of the verb were not weakened. Old English was a highly inflected language. It had a complete system of declensions(变格) with four case and conjugations. So Old English grammar differs from Modern English grammar in these aspects(方面).

The period from 1150 is known as the Middle English period. It is know as the period inflections. This period was marked by important changes in the English language. The Norman Conquest was the cause of these changes. The change of this period had a great effect on both grammar and vocabulary. In this period many Old English words were lost, but thousands of words borrowed from French and Latin appeared in the English vocabulary. In the Middle English period grammatical gender(性) disappeared, grammatical gender was completely replaced by the natural gender.

Modern English period extends from 1500 to the present day. The Early modern English period extends from 1500 to 1700. The chief influence of this time was great humanistic(人文主义的) movement of the Renaissance. The influence of Latin and Greek on English was great. The nineteenth and twentieth centuries are a period of rapid expansion(扩张) for the English vocabulary in the history of the English language.

The development of the English language in America can be separated into three periods: The first period extends from the settlement of Jamestown in 1607 to the end of colonial times. In this period the population in America numbered about four million people, 90 of percent of whom came from Britain. The second period covers the expansion of the original thirteen colonies. This time may be said to close with the Civil War, about 1860. This period was marked by the arrival of the new immigrants(移民) from Ireland and Germany. The third period, since the Civil War, is marked by an important change in the source from which the European immigrants came. They came from northern and southern Europe in large numbers.

As time went on, the English language gradually changed on both sides of the Atlantic. The Americans adopted(接纳) many words from foreign languages and invented large number of new words to meet their various needs.

American English began in the seventeenth century. At the beginning of the 17th century the English language was brought to North American by colonists from English. They used the language spoken in England, that is, Elizabethan English, the language used by Shakespeare, Milton and Banyan. At first the language stayed the same as the language used in Britain, but slowly the language began to change. Sometimes, the English spoken in American changed but sometimes the language spoken in the place stayed the same, while the language in England changed.

Following American independence, famous persons like Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Webster began to consider that the country should have a language of its own. English in America has developed a character(特点) of its own, reflecting the life and the physical and social environment of the American people.

Selected from An Introduction to English Lexicology by Lin Chengzhang

II.A Brief Look at the History of English

The history of English is conventionally(按惯例), if perhaps too neatly(巧妙地), divided into three periods usually called Old English (or Anglo-Saxon), Middle English, and Modern English. The earliest period begins with the migration of certain Germanic tribes from the continent to Britain in the fifth century A. D., though no records of their language survive from before the seventh century, and it continues until the end of the eleventh century or a bit later. By that time Latin, Old Norse (the language of the Viking invaders), and especially the Anglo-Norman French of the dominant(占优势的) class after the Norman Conquest in 1066 had begun to have a substantial impact(冲击) on the lexicon(词法), and the well-developed inflectional(词尾变化的) system that typifies(代表) the grammar of Old English had begun to break down. The following brief sample of Old English prose illustrates several of the significant ways in which change has so transformed(转化) English that we must look carefully to find points of resemblance(相似) between the language of the tenth century and our own. It is taken from Aelfric\'s "Homily on St. Gregory the Great" and concerns the famous story of how that pope came to send missionaries(传教士) to convert(使...改变信仰) the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity after seeing Anglo-Saxon boys for sale as slaves in Rome.

A few of these words will be recognized as identical(一致) in spelling with their modern equivalents(对应词) -- he, of, him, for, and, on -- and the resemblance of a few others to familiar words may be guessed -- nama to name, comon to come, w?re to were, w?s to was -- but only those who have made a special study of Old English will be able to read the passage with understanding. The sense of it is as follows: "Again he [St. Gregory] asked what might be the name of the people from which they came. It was answered to him that they were named Angles. Then he said, \'Rightly are they called Angles because they have the beauty of angels, and it is fitting that such as they should be angels\' companions in heaven.\' " Some of the words in the original have survived in altered form, including axode (asked), hu (how), rihtlice (rightly), engla (angels), habbae (have), swilcum (such), heofonum (heaven), and beon (be). Others, however, have vanished from our lexicon, mostly without a trace, including several that were quite common words in Old English: eft "again," eeode "people, nation," cw?e "said, spoke," gehatene "called, named," wlite "appearance, beauty," and geferan "companions." Recognition of some words is naturally hindered by the presence of two special characters, t, called "thorn," and e, called "edh," which served in Old English to represent the sounds now spelled with th.

Other points worth noting include the fact that the pronoun system did not yet, in the late tenth century, include the third person plural forms beginning with th-: hi appears where we would use they. Several aspects(方面) of word order will also strike the reader as oddly unlike ours. Subject and verb are inverted(倒装) after an adverb -- ta cw?e he "Then said he" -- a phenomenon(现象) not unknown in Modern English but now restricted to a few adverbs such as never and requiring the presence of an auxiliary verb like do or have. In subordinate(复合句) clauses the main verb must be last, and so an object or a preposition may precede it in a way no longer natural: te hi of comon "which they from came," for ean ee hi engla wlite habbae "because they angels\' beauty have."

Perhaps the most distinctive difference between Old and Modern English reflected in Aelfric\'s sentences is the elaborate(细微) system of inflections, of which we now have only remnants. Nouns, adjectives, and even the definite article are inflected for gender, case(格), and number: e?re eeode "(of) the people" is feminine(女性的), genitive(属格的), and singular, Angle "Angles" is masculine(男性的), accusative(宾格的), and plural, and swilcum "such" is masculine, dative(与格的), and plural. The system of inflections for verbs was also more elaborate than ours: for example, habbae "have" ends with the -ae suffix characteristic(特性) of plural present indicative verbs. In addition, there were two imperative(祈使) forms, four subjunctive forms (two for the present tense and two for the preterit, or past, tense), and several others which we no longer have. Even where Modern English retains(保留) a particular category(范围) of inflection, the form has often changed. Old English present participles ended in -ende not -ing, and past participles bore a prefix ge- (as geandwyrd "answered" above).

The period of Middle English extends roughly(大概) from the twelfth century through the fifteenth. The influence of French (and Latin, often by way of French) upon the lexicon continued throughout this period, the loss of some inflections and the reduction of others (often to a final unstressed(非读的) vowel spelled -e) accelerated(加强), and many changes took place within the phonological(音韵的) and grammatical systems of the language. A typical prose passage, especially one from the later part of the period, will not have such a foreign look to us as Aelfric\'s prose(散文) has; but it will not be mistaken for contemporary writing either. The following brief passage is drawn from a work of the late fourteenth century called Mandeville\'s Travels. It is fiction(小说) in the guise(外观) of travel literature, and, though it purports(主旨) to be from the pen of an English knight, it was originally written in French and later translated into Latin and English. In this extract(摘录) Mandeville describes the land of Bactria, apparently not an altogether inviting place, as it is inhabited(居住) by "full yuele [evil] folk and full cruell."

The spelling is often peculiar by modern standards and even inconsistent(不一致) within these few sentences (contré and contree, o [griffoun] and a [gret hors], tanne and tan, for example). Moreover, in the original text, there is in addition to thorn another old character 3, called "yogh," to make difficulty. It can represent several sounds but here may be thought of as equivalent to y. Even the older spellings (including those where u stands for v or vice versa) are recognizable, however, and there are only a few words like ipotaynes "hippopotamuses" and sithes "times" that have dropped out of the language altogether. We may notice a few words and phrases that have meanings no longer common such as byttere "salty," o this half "on this side of the world," and at the poynt "to hand," and the effect of the centuries-long dominance(统治) of French on the vocabulary is evident in many familiar words which could not have occurred in Aelfric\'s writing even if his subject had allowed them, words like contree, ryueres, plentee, egle, and lyoun.

In general word order is now very close to that of our time, though we notice constructions like hath the body more gret and three sithes more tan is the water of the see. We also notice that present tense verbs still receive a plural inflection as in beren, dwellen, han, and ben and that while nominative(主格的) tei has replaced Aelfric\'s hi in the third person plural, the form for objects is still hem. All the same, the number of inflections for nouns, adjectives, and verbs has been greatly reduced, and in most respects Mandeville is closer to Modern than to Old English.

The period of Modern English extends from the sixteenth century to our own day. The early part of this period saw the completion of a revolution in the phonology(音韵学) of English that had begun in late Middle English and that effectively redistributed(再分散) the occurrence(发生) of the vowel phonemes(音素) to something approximating(接近) their present pattern. (Mandeville\'s English would have sounded even less familiar to us than it looks.) Other important early developments include the stabilizing(固定) effect on spelling of the printing press and the beginning of the direct influence of Latin and, to a lesser extent, Greek on the lexicon. Later, as English came into contact with other cultures around the world and distinctive(不同的) dialects(方言) of English developed in the many areas which Britain had colonized, numerous other languages made small but interesting contributions(贡献) to our word-stock.

The historical aspect of English really encompasses(包括) more than the three stages(阶段) of development just under consideration. English has what might be called a prehistory(史前的) as well. As we have seen, our language did not simply spring into existence; it was brought from the Continent by Germanic tribes who had no form of writing and hence left no records. Philologists(语言学家) know that they must have spoken a dialect of a language that can be called West Germanic and that other dialects of this unknown language must have included the ancestors(祖先) of such languages as German, Dutch, Low German, and Frisian. They know this because of certain systematic similarities which these languages share with each other but do not share with, say, Danish. However, they have had somehow to reconstruct what that language was like in its lexicon(词法), phonology(音韵学), grammar, and semantics(语义学) as best they can through sophisticated(先进的) techniques of comparison developed chiefly(主要地) during the last century. Similarly, because ancient and modern languages like Old Norse and Gothic or Icelandic and Norwegian have points in common with Old English and Old High German or Dutch and English that they do not share with French or Russian, it is clear that there was an earlier unrecorded language that can be called simply Germanic and that must be reconstructed in the same way. Still earlier, Germanic was just a dialect (the ancestors of Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit were three other such dialects) of a language conventionally designated (指定)Indo-European, and thus English is just one relatively young member of an ancient family of languages whose descendants(后代) cover a fair portion of the globe.

Selected from homepage by Eleston

III.English History

These pages provide a quick tour of the English language and the some of the changes it has seen. Included for your reading pleasure is a brief tour of Old English and Middle English. In addition, I have some Items of Interest and Related Links at the end.
Below is an excerpt of The Nativity according to Luke, first in Old English, then in Middle English (two translations, about 225 years apart). If you look at them carefully, you can see the similarities -- and the striking(明显) differences. Those who know German or a Scandinavian language can see why English is called a sister language of German. Also, there was a time back in the Old English period when the Scandinavian languages (Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Icelandic) and English were mutually understandable. English is certainly the one that has broken further away from the other four (Scandinavians can still pretty much understand each other\'s dialects), but the strong influence of Latin (mostly through the church and scholars) and the Norman invasion(入侵) of England brought about significant changes in the language, as did a host of smaller influences.

The Nativity was chosen because the gospels are available in all three "languages".

Old English
Sotlice on tam dagum w?s geworden gebod fram tam casereAugusto, t?t eall ymbehwyrft w?re tomearcod. Teos tomearcodnesw?s ?ryst geworden fram tam deman Syrige Cirino. And ealle hig eodon,and syndrige ferdon on hyra ceastre. Da ferde iosep fram Galilea of t?receastre Nazareth on Iudeisce ceastre Dauides, seo is genemned Bethleem, for tam te he w?s of Dauides huse and hirede; t?t he ferde mid Mariante him beweddod w?s, and w?s geeacnod. Sotlice w?s geworden ta hi tar w?ron, hire dagas w?ron gefyllede t?t heo cende. And heo cende hyre frumcennedan sunu, and hine mid cildclatum bewand, and hine on binne alede, for tam te hig n?fdon rum on cumena huse. And hyrdas w?ron on tam ylcan rice waciende, and nihtw?ccan healdende ofer heora heorda. Ta stod Drihtnes engel wit hig, and Godes beorhtnes him ymbe scean; and hi him mycelum ege adredon. And se engel him to cw?e, Nelle ge eow adr?dan; sotlice nu ic eow bodie mycelne gefean, se bie eallum folce; for tam to d?g eow ys H?lend acenned, se is Drihten Crist, on Dauides ceastre. And tis tacen eow bye: Ge gemetae an cild hr?glum bewunden, and on binne aled. And ta w?s f?ringa geworden mid tam engle mycelnes heofenlices werydes, God heriendra and tus cwetendra, Gode sy wuldor on heahnesse, and on eorean sybb mannum godes willan.

Middle English
(translation by John Wycliffe, c. 1380-83)
And it was don in tho daies, a maundement wente out fro the emperour August, thatal the world schulde be discryued. This firste discryuyng was maad of Cyryn, iustice of Sirie. And alle men wenten to make professioun, ech in to his owne citee. And Joseph went vp fro Galilee, fro the citee Nazareth, in to Judee, in to a citee of Dauid, that is clepid Bethleem, for that he was of the hous and of the meyne of Dauid, that he schulde knouleche with Marie, his wijf, that was weddid to hym, and was greet with child. And it was don, while thei weren there, the daies were fulfillid, that sche schulde bere child. And sche bare hir first borun sone, and wlappide hym in clothis, and leide hym in a cratche, for ther was no place to hym in no chaumbir. And scheepherdis weren in the same cuntre, wakynge and kepynge the watchis of the nygt on her flok. And lo! the aungel of the Lord stood bisidis hem, and the cleernesse of God schinede aboute hem; and thei dredden with greet drede. And the aungel seide to hem, Nyle ye drede; for lo! Y preche to you a greet ioye, that schal be to al puple. For a sauyoure is borun to dai to you, that is Crist the Lord, in the citee of Dauid. And this is a tokene to you; ye schulen fynde a yong child wlappid in clothis, and leid in a cratche. And sudenli ther was maad with the aungel a multitude of heuenli knygthod, heriynge God, and seiynge, Glorie be in the higeste thingis to God, and in erthe pees be to men of good wille.

(King James version, c. 1604)
And it came to passe in those dayes, that there went out a decree from Cesar Augustus, that all the world should be taxed. (And this taxing was first made when Cyrenius was gouernor of Syria) And all went to bee taxed, euery one into his owne citie. And Joseph also went vp fro Galilee, out of the citie of Nazareth, into Judea, vnto the citie of Dauid, which is called Bethlehem, (because he was of the house and linage of Dauid,) To be taxed with Mary his espoused wife, being great with child. And so it was, that while they were there, the dayes were accomplished that she should be deliuered. And she brought foorth her first borne sonne, and wrapped him in swadling clothes, and laid him in a manger, because there was no roome for them in the Inne. And there were in the same countrey shepheards abiding in y field, keeping watch ouer their flocke by night. And loe, the Angel of the Lord came vpon them, and the glory of the Lord shone round about them, and they were sore afraid. And the Angel said vnto them, Feare not: For behold, I bring you good tidings of great ioy, which shall be to all people. For vnto you is borne this day, in the citie of Dauid, a Sauiour, which is Christ the Lord. And this shall be a signe vnto you; yee shall find the babe wrapped in swadling clothes lying in a manger. And suddenly there was with the Angel a multitude of the heauenly hoste praising God, and saying, Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good wil towards men. 参考技术A The occurrence and development of English

英语基础-时态

1. 什么是时态？

英语中的时态是表明在不同的时间内所发生的动作或者存在的状态，英语总共有16种时态。

2. 汉语和英语时态的区别

1. 我打扫房间。

I clean the room.

2. 我在打扫房间。

I am cleaning the room.

3. 我已经打扫房间了。

I have cleaned the room.

4. 我还在打扫房间。

I have been cleaning the room.

英语是靠谓语的变形来说明时态的。

3. 时态的基本用法

1. 我每天晚上做作业。

I do my homework.

2. 我在做作业。

I am doing my homework.

3. 我已经做好作业了。

I have done my homework.

4. 我还在做作业。

I have been doing my homework.

4. 用被动语态翻译下列句子

1. 我打扫房间。

The room is cleaned.

2. 我在打扫房间。

The room is being cleaned.

3. 我打扫了房间。

The room has been cleaned.

4. 我还在打扫房间。

The room has been being cleaned.

5. 理论基础

主动情况下的时态：

 被动情况下的时态：

6. 练习题

6.1.  完成下列填空

1. We often hold a meeting  in the morning. （举办）

2. It is eight o’clock. They are doing their homework. （做）

3. Kids eat a cake. （吃）

4. The cake has been eaten by those children. （已经吃光了）

5. Their mother has been doing the dishes. （还在洗）

6.2.  用否定形式翻译下列句子

1. 小明吃过饭了。 

Ming has not had dinner.

2. 他经常周末打游戏。

He does not play games at the weekend.

3. 他爸爸还在看电视。

His father has not  been watching TV.

4. 她妈妈正在洗碗。

Her mom is not doing the dishes.

7. 课后作业

7.1. 用 take 代表动词完成填空

 7.2. 根据提示完成填空

1. I am playing games with my phone. （正在玩）

2. She doesn't run in the morning. （不跑步）

3. Mary and Jenny are watching TV. （正在看）

4. The water has been exhausted. （已经耗尽了）

5. His father has slept for 2 hours. （已经睡了）

6. It is 5 o’clock. The baby  is sleeping. （睡觉）

7. The experiment has not been finshed. （还没完成）

8. The poor boy  has been doing  his homework. （还在做）

9. This beautiful lady has been marrried since 1997. （已经结婚）

10. I live in Guangdong. （住）

7.3. 完成下列句子翻译

1. 我经常在早上起床。

I often get up in the morning.

2. 10点了，Jack还在看电视。

It's 10 o'clock, and Jack has been watching TV.

3. 小红已经写了2个小时的作业了。

Hong has spent 2 hours doing her homework.

4. 小明一直在玩电脑游戏。

Ming has been playing PC games.

5. 他们的领导还没有结束会议。

Their leader has not concluded the meeting.

6. 我们的任务还没有完成。

Our task has not been finished.